Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals.

Copper. References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.

Bronze. The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:1011, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).

Iron and steel. One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).

Tin. Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead. Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Gold and silver. Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.

Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.

Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

Precious stones. Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

Jeremiah is a complex book with many themes. One of the central ideas, however, is covenant. The Bible often uses the idea of a covenant to describe the relationship between God and his people. A covenant is a divinely initiated and defined agreement. God makes promises and calls on his people to observe certain requirements. Research has found that the biblical covenants are close in form and concept to ancient Near Eastern treaties between the kings of superpowers and those of much less powerful nations (vassal treaties). The powerful, sovereign king announces the law to the vassal, and it is accompanied by curses and blessings. If the vassal obeys, then the king gives a reward, but if the vassal disobeys, then the king issues punishment.

There is a series of covenantal relationships between God and his people (Noah [Gen. 9]; Abraham [Gen. 12:13; 15; 17]; Moses [Exod. 19–24]; David [2Sam. 7]), but most relevant for our understanding of Jeremiah is the covenant with Moses as reaffirmed in Deuteronomy. The Mosaic covenant emphasizes law (see Deut. 5–26) and has an extensive section of curses and blessings (Deut. 27–28).

Jeremiah and many of the other prophets may be styled “lawyers of the covenant.” God sends them to his people when they disobey the law. Their job is to warn the people to change their lives and live in conformity with God’s will or else the curses of the covenant will come into effect.

Jeremiah’s oracles focus on warning the people that they are covenant breakers, particularly in the matter of worshiping false gods (Jer. 10–11). The hope is that the people will repent and thus avoid the most extreme punishment. But it is not only the judgment oracles that are related to the covenant; so too are the salvation oracles. In Jer. 31:31–34 the prophet announces that God will replace the old covenant with a new one, which will be more internal, more intense, and more intimate.

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

The king of Judah (r. 640609 BC). Although his father (Amon) and grandfather (Manasseh) were evil and worshiped false gods, Josiah “did what was right in the eyes of the Lord and followed completely the ways of his father David, not turning aside to the right or to the left” (2 Kings 22:2). Indeed, according to 2 Kings 21:24–23:30; 2Chron. 33:25–35:27, no one among the kings of Judah, not even Hezekiah, surpassed Josiah in terms of his piety.

Josiah’s name first appears centuries before he was born. FirstKings 13:2 records the words of an unnamed prophet who announced that Josiah would destroy the golden calf shrine that JeroboamI dedicated. This altar was built in the second half of the tenth century BC. The fulfillment of this prophecy is recorded in 2Kings 23:15–18.

The high point of his religious reform took place in his eighteenth year, when he ordered the purification of the temple. Up to that time, the temple had housed idolatrous objects. During the repair, the priest Hilkiah discovered the Book of the Law. The reaction to this book suggests that it was Deuteronomy or a part thereof, which presumably had been suppressed by the previous wicked administrations.

Although he was a good king, Josiah had a sad conclusion to his life. He was killed in 609 BC when he attempted to block the march of Pharaoh Necho up the coast as the latter tried to bolster the Assyrian forces at Carchemish.

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

In ancient Israel and surrounding cultures, pillars were used in every kind of architectural construction, from simple houses (Prov. 9:1) to palaces (Ps. 144:12) and temples (Judg. 16:29; 1Kings 7:1522). One of the distinctive features of Israelite domestic architecture was the division of the ground floor of the house into two, three, or four rooms divided by rows of pillars. Such pillars rested on stone foundations that often survived even when the rest of the building had been destroyed, thus allowing modern archaeologists to identify many remains of pillared houses.

Stone pillars (obelisks) were used in religious worship in ancient Israel, such as those erected by Jacob (Gen. 28:18, 22; 35:14). A pillar could also commemorate a covenant (Gen. 31:45; Exod. 24:4; Josh. 24:26; 2Chron. 34:31) or a tomb (Gen. 35:20). In later stories, pillars are viewed negatively, as in 2Kings 18:4, where Hezekiah is credited with destroying Asherah pillars as part of a broad religious reform (see also Jer. 43:13). Archaeologists have discovered cultic pillars in the temple at Tell Arad, among other places.

The temple of Solomon at Jerusalem incorporated two highly decorated pillars, Jakin and Boaz (1Kings 7:21), made of bronze and reported to be 18 cubits (27 feet) high and 12 cubits (18 feet) in circumference, with an additional height of 5 cubits (7.5 feet) including the capital (1Kings 7:16; cf. 2Kings 25:17). When Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC, the bronze pillars were destroyed, and their bronze was taken to Babylon (2Kings 25:13).

In ancient cosmology, the earth and the heavens were thought to be supported by pillars (Job 9:6; 26:11; Ps. 75:3).

In the NT, the pillar is used as a metaphor for leaders in the church (Gal. 2:9) or the church itself (1Tim. 3:15).

A priest is a minister of sacred things who represents God to the people and the people to God. The OT identifies priests of Yahweh and priests of other gods and idols. The only pagan priest that the NT mentions is the priest of Zeus from Lystra who wanted to offer sacrifices to Paul and Barnabas, whom the crowd mistook for deities (Acts 14:13). All other NT references build upon OT teaching about priests of Yahweh.

Early biblical history records clan heads offering sacrifices for their families (Gen. 12:78; 13:18; 22; 31:54; 46:1). Although the patriarchs performed these duties, they are never called “priests”; the only priests mentioned from this time are foreigners such as Melchizedek, the Egyptian priest of On, and Moses’ father-in-law Jethro (Gen. 14:18; 41:45, 50; 46:20; Exod. 3:1; 18:1). Whereas all Israelites could be called “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6), a distinctive priesthood came to light when God instructed Moses to prepare special priestly clothes for Aaron and his sons (Exod. 28). The high priest was distinguished from the others by more magnificent clothes. By failing to wear their special clothes while serving at the tabernacle, the priests would incur guilt and die (Exod. 28:43).

In NT times many priests exerted religious and civil power as leaders of the Sadducees and the Essenes. Some priests, such as Zechariah, were portrayed as righteous men (Luke 1:5–6). Others were said to have come to faith in Jesus (Acts 6:7). Supporting the role assigned by Moses, Jesus regularly required those whom he healed to show themselves to the priest. Even so, most Gospel references to priests underscore their opposition to Jesus’ ministry and the role they played in his trial and crucifixion. This opposition continued after the resurrection, as priests challenged the witness of the apostles. When Peter and John proclaimed that a crippled beggar had been healed by Jesus’ power, the priests and others jailed, interrogated, and forbade them from speaking in Jesus’ name (Acts 4:1–20). The Sanhedrin questioned Stephen about charges of blasphemy and speaking against the temple and the Mosaic law (6:11–7:1). Saul (Paul) received a letter of authority from the high priest to arrest Christians (9:1–2). Later, as a follower of Jesus, he stood trial before Ananias, who charged him before Felix (24:1), and a wider group of chief priests who charged him before Festus (25:1–3).

Hebrews uniquely highlights how the priesthood of Jesus surpassed the OT priesthood. The OT priests presented sin offerings, but their sacrifices needed to be repeated regularly, whereas Jesus, the faithful and merciful high priest, offered a sacrifice that never needed repeating and was available to everyone at all times. Jesus also surpassed the Aaronic priests because they first needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins, but he never sinned. Furthermore, since he offered the perfect sacrifice of himself, all people, not just priests, could draw near to God.

The NT develops the idea of a priesthood of all believers by taking the concept that Israel would be a kingdom of priests and transferring it to the church (1Pet. 2:4–9; cf. Exod. 19:6). Reflecting the general biblical view of priesthood, believers offer spiritual sacrifices to God, represent God to the world by revealing his works of salvation, and represent the world to God through prayer. In the NT, the priesthood of believers is corporate; a priestly office in the church is never expressly mentioned.

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. In ancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The ground in Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a useful item (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks were customized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besides their utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote an office and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffs that indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predicts that the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah. Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimes a staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It was symbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimes symbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs are associated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’s staff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and the Israelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield as long as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’s Rod.

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

(1)Aleader of the half-tribe of Manasseh (1Chron. 5:24). (2,3, 4)Threewarriors in David’s army (1Chron. 12:4, 10, 13).

(5)Amajor prophet who lived to see Judah exiled to Babylon. Jeremiah isone of the most colorful and transparent figures in the Bible. Notonly does the book that bears his name describe his actions againstthe backdrop of the great events of his day, but also the prophethimself shares his emotions with depth and passion. He is known tomany as the “weeping prophet” because of the grief hefeels over the sin and judgment of his people. He could also becalled the “angry prophet” because of his reaction to theharsh treatment he received at the hands of the people of Judah. Hewas also in turmoil in his relationship with God, upset that God madehim the messenger of hard news to his compatriots (Jer. 20:1–18).

Jeremiahwas a priest who grew up in the priestly town of Anathoth, about fourmiles northeast of Jerusalem. The superscription to the book does nottell us when he was born, but it does say that he began his propheticministry in the thirteenth year of Josiah (626 BC), and that itcontinued until the eleventh year of Zedekiah (586 BC), which we alsoknow as the year that the Babylonians defeated the city of Jerusalem.We do have stories associated with Jeremiah after that time into theperiod of the exile (Jer. 40–44).

Jeremiahwas commissioned as a prophet (Jer. 1:4–10) to bring a messageof judgment and restoration to his people and also to the nations. Byfar most of his recorded oracles are judgment oracles, but at theheart of the book (chaps. 30–33) are important messages ofsalvation, the section often referred to as the Book of Consolation.

Theyear of his calling was a pivotal moment. In this year, Babylon,under its king Nabopolassar, initiated a revolt against Assyria,which had dominated it and much of the Near East for many years. InJudah the good king Josiah ruled, and Jeremiah surely supported hisreligious reforms. Josiah was killed in battle, however, in 609 BC,and he was replaced by kings who did not care about God or themessage of the prophet. In particular, Jehoiakim (r. 609–597BC) and Zedekiah (r. 597–586 BC) were opponents of Jeremiah andthe object of many of his prophetic denunciations.

Thoughwarned by the prophet of coming judgment, Judah and its leaders didnot repent but continued to resist God. In 586 BC God allowed theBabylonian army to defeat Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar exiled many ofits leading citizens and destroyed the temple, palace, and walls ofthe city. He had heard of Jeremiah and the prophet’s teachingthat Judah should surrender to Babylon, so he treated him kindly. Heallowed Jeremiah to choose whether to go to Babylon or to stay inJudah. Jeremiah chose the latter, supporting the provisionalgovernment under the leadership of the Babylonian-appointed Jewishgovernor Gedaliah, who later was assassinated by Jewish insurgents. Anumber of the remaining Jews grew frightened of the expectedBabylonian reprisal. Against God’s word as mediated throughJeremiah, they fled to Egypt, forcibly taking Jeremiah with them. TheBible does not narrate Jeremiah’s death, but tradition saysthat he died in Egypt.

(6)Thefather of Hamutal, the mother of King Jehoahaz (r. 609 BC) and KingZedekiah (r. 597–586 BC) and the wife of King Josiah (r.640–609 BC), from Libnah (2 Kings 23:31; 24:18). (7)Apriest from the time of Zerubbabel (after 539 BC) (Neh. 12:1, 12).(8)Apriest from the time of Nehemiah (after 445 BC) (Neh. 10:2; 12:34).

The king of Judah (r. 640–609 BC). Although his father(Amon) and grandfather (Manasseh) were evil and worshiped false gods,Josiah “did what was right in the eyes of the Lord and followedcompletely the ways of his father David, not turning aside to theright or to the left” (2 Kings 22:2). Indeed, according to 2Kings 21:24–23:30; 2Chron. 33:25–35:27, no oneamong the kings of Judah, not even Hez-e-kiah, surpassed Josiah interms of his piety.

Josiah’sname first appears centuries before he was born. FirstKings13:2 records the words of an unnamed prophet who announced thatJosiah would destroy the golden calf shrine that JeroboamIdedicated. This altar was built in the second half of the tenthcentury BC. The fulfillment of this prophecy is recorded in 2Kings23:15–18.

Theprophets Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1–4; 22:13–23; 25:3; 36:2) andZephaniah (Zeph. 1:1) ministered during Josiah’s reign andlikely supported his religious reforms. The high point of hisreligious reform took place in his eighteenth year, when he orderedthe purification of the temple. Up to that time, the temple hadhoused idolatrous objects. During the repair, the priest Hilkiahdiscovered the Book of the Law. The reaction to this book suggeststhat it was Deuteronomy or a part thereof, which presumably had beensuppressed by the previous wicked administrations.

Althoughhe was a good king, Josiah had a sad conclusion to his life. He waskilled in 609 BC when he attempted to block the march of PharaohNecho up the coast as the latter tried to bolster the Assyrian forcesat Carchemish.

OldTestament.Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are importanthere.

Theword shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon theEgyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesiesGod’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10;16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as theSyrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).

Themost frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat,“judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just(Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut.10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). Atthe waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for thepeople (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim,“judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel(Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to beimpartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justicein trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged forrejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:7–8) and worshipingfalse gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come tojudgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to theirjudges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a timeof judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).

NewTestament. Onekey word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar tomishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words aswell as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatologicaljudgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42),Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27;2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesushimself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoidcondemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).

Anotherkey word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2;Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment(Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He alsooften presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3;5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet.2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to beteachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).

The word “mouth” has a variety of uses in theBible. First, it is used in the literal sense of a human or animalmouth. Jeremiah says, “The Lord reached out his hand andtouched my mouth” (Jer. 1:9). Numbers 22:28 refers to theliteral mouth of a donkey, and likewise Ps. 22:21 refers to the mouthof a lion. In reference to eating, see Matt. 15:17. The word “mouth”is also used in an inanimate sense to refer to an opening of anobject or geographical feature. Phrases such as “the mouth ofhis sack” (Gen. 42:27), “the mouth of the well”(Gen. 29:3), and “the mouth of the cave” (Josh. 10:18)are common in the Bible. The earth could also open its metaphoricalmouth to swallow individuals, denoting divine punishment (Num.16:30,32).

Themore common use of the word “mouth” occurs in phrasessuch as “I have put my words in your mouth” (Isa. 51:16;Jer. 1:9; cf. Exod. 4:15; Deut. 18:18). This phrase and similar ones,when speaking of God, refer to inspiration and the speech asbelonging to God. Otherwise, putting words into one’s mouth isakin to giving that person instructions (Deut. 31:19 NRSV, KJV).

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

This phrase (Heb. ’am ha’arets) occursapproximately fifty times in the OT in the singular and about fifteentimes inthe plural (“peoples of the land”). On thesurface, the phrase appears to simply refer to the inhabitants of anyparticular geographical location. However, in the last few decadesthere has been much discussion as to whether the phrase might have amore limited or technical meaning. Some of the suggestions are thatthe phrase refers to (1)a ruling national council; (2)theelite, aristocratic, influential, upper class; (3)the poorer,landless segments of society; (4)the common people, as opposedto the ruling elite, though these could still be landed; (5)free,property-owning citizens; (6)unsophisticated country dwellersversus refined city dwellers; (7)those who are ritually impureand less pious.

Whilethere is some justification for some of these proposals, especiallyfor the plural (“peoples”), they are perhaps, for themost part, overly pressed. Inasmuch as ancient Near Eastern societieswere patriarchal and largely male dominated, it seems safe to suggestthat in those contexts where decision making, judging, and/ormilitary activity is predicated of the “people of the land,”a free, male, and land-owning group is in view. When Abrahamnegotiates with Ephron the Hittite for a burial plot for his deceasedwife, Sarah, in front of the “people of the land” (Gen.23), we may assume the group was comprised of citizenry who regularlywitnessed such transactions. Various coup attempts or struggles forpower seem to presuppose that the “people of the land”were those capable of bearing arms (2Kings 11:13–20;21:24; 23:30; 25:19). In 2Kings 24:14; 25:12 reference is madeto the “poorest people of the land,” and the use of theadjective indicates that the phrase “people of the land”was in itself insufficient to denote the poorer classes. In Jer.1:18; 37:2; 44:21 the “people of the land” may beseparate groups from the officials mentioned in those passages. Otherthan these passages, all preexilic uses of the phrase seem to refersimply to inhabitants in general.

Thepostexilic books Ezra and Nehemiah, as well as the apocryphal book1Esdras, with one exception (Ezra 4:4), use the plural,“peoples of the land” (the NIV variously translates asthe “people around us,” “peoples around you”).In these instances the phrase is used to indicate the variousnon-Judaic peoples in the Judean province who proved, on variousoccasions, to be hostile to the Jews returning from exile in Babylon.Some of the returning Jews also intermarried with these groups,something that Ezra and Nehemiah considered an abomination because itmight lead to idolatry. It is probably out of this postexilicsituation that the later pejorative use of the phrase “peopleof the land” was employed by the Pharisees to refer, not toGentiles, but to Jews whom they considered, by their standards, to beritually impure and thus ignorant of the Mosaic law. It is possiblethat there was a virtual equation made between “people of theland” and “sinners.” The phrase does not occur inthe NT, but the attitude toward those whom the Pharisees consideredto be ritually impure is evidenced on numerous occasions (e.g., John7:49).

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

Abortion remains an important and vital issue in contemporarysociety, but the Bible does not comment directly on the practice.There is no law for or against, nor is there even a description orallusion to it, even though its practice was not unknown in theancient world. Apparently, it was not an issue in biblicallegislation.

Perhapsthe most frequently cited passages tied to the contemporary abortiondebate are Exod. 21:22–25; Job 10:10–11; Ps. 139:13–16;Jer. 1:5. Although these passages certainly speak to the unbornstate, they have only indirect relevance, at best, to the issue ofabortion.

TheHebrew wording of Exod. 21:22 is obscure and could refer to amiscarriage or full-term delivery; and the harm referred to could bethat of either the mother or the child. Also, Exod. 21:22 speaks ofaccidental death, not a willing decision by a mother to abort achild.

Jeremiah1:5 refers to God knowing Jeremiah before he was in the womb. Thisspeaks to God’s intention from time past to use Jeremiah as aprophet, and the text should not be generalized of everyone. Clearly,the focus is not on the personhood of the fetus but on the extent ofGod’s knowledge.

Psalm139:13–16 is perhaps most relevant to the debate, as thepsalmist describes the wonder of God in “creating” and“forming” him in the womb. Since the passage refers toGod’s planning of the entire believer’s life (v. 16),that life seems to begin in some sense in the womb. Similarly, Job10:10–11 speaks of fetal development. Although these passagesdo not speak directly to the matter of abortion, they imply thatGod’s care for humans does not begin only at birth.

However,care must be taken not to allow this relative silence to bemisunderstood. The Bible is very clear about the sanctity of life,especially that of the innocent. The biblical argument againstabortion is one that connects more to larger themes concerningprotection of the innocent than to any one verse or to a lack ofverses.

The Bible says that on judgment day, God will evaluate thedeeds done during our lifetime (2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 20:12). Godsaves us by grace alone, through faith alone, because of what Christalone has done; nevertheless, our works serve as the evidence or“fruit” of regeneration (Matt. 7:15–27). Works alsobecome God’s standard when the lost are condemned in hisheavenly court, since he “will repay each person according towhat they have done” and each person has, in fact, sinned (Rom.2:6; 3:23). But what will God do with young children and the mentallychallenged, neither of whom can understand God’s moral law wellenough to sin against it or obey it consciously? How will God treatpeople who could never understand the gospel no matter how clearly anevangelist presents it? The received answer to this question appealsto the idea that we must reach an “age of accountability”before God holds us responsible for our own deeds, and that this agevaries with the individual person. But does Scripture endorse thisidea?

Theparents of miscarried children and those whose children have died atan early age have the greatest emotional stake in the answer to thisquestion. They want to hear that they will see their children again;and the position taken here is that they will, though for a differentreason than the one commonly given. Specifically, we must not saythat the innocence of these children qualifies them for heaven,because Adam’s corruption affects us all (Rom. 5:12; cf. Pss.51:5; 58:3). Their inherited depravity could not show itself in overtsins, at least not at a very early age, but Scripture implies thatthey suffer from it nonetheless. Consequently, as with every case ofsalvation, the future of children and the mentally handicapped isdecided on the basis of God’s grace. They are guilty and standin need of the cross, as we all do. But would God apply the work ofChrist to them by the Spirit before they can function as moral agentsand respond consciously to the gospel? A circ*mstantial case can bemade for answering in the affirmative to this question, with thiscaveat: the argument given applies only to these special cases. Itdoes not encourage the view that unreached sinners are essentiallyinfants in God’s sight and thus justified by similararrangements.

Webegin by noting that God claims some people for his own purposes,even in infancy. He does so in John the Baptist’s case, fillinghim with the Holy Spirit from his mother’s womb (Luke 1:15).David and Jeremiah also see God’s hand upon them from theirearliest days (Ps. 22:10; Jer. 1:5), as does the apostle Paul (Gal.1:15). At a minimum, these texts show us that God can and, in somecases, has dealt with human beings before they could ever respondconsciously to him. David also expects to be personally reunited withhis deceased son, saying, “I will go to him, but he will notreturn to me” (2 Sam. 12:23). A final clue is the responseof Jesus to children during the days of his earthly life. He rebukeshis disciples for keeping children away from him, saying that God’skingdom belongs to “such as these” (Matt. 19:14; Mark10:14; cf. Matt. 18:3). Of course, these episodes are included mainlyto show adults what discipleship means, with special reference tohumility and self-forgetfulness. In following Jesus, we must care nomore for our social status and dignity than young children typicallydo. Yet one would not do well to argue that Jesus welcomes childreninto his company merely for illustrative purposes, as if they mean nomore to him than handy visual aids. The disciples place children lowon their Lord’s list of ministry priorities, and Jesus raisesthem all the way up. Our answer to this question must be an educatedguess, but the safest conclusion seems to be that while childrenstill need the cross, they receive its benefits consistently by othermeans and thus go to heaven when they die.

The Bible says that on judgment day, God will evaluate thedeeds done during our lifetime (2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 20:12). Godsaves us by grace alone, through faith alone, because of what Christalone has done; nevertheless, our works serve as the evidence or“fruit” of regeneration (Matt. 7:15–27). Works alsobecome God’s standard when the lost are condemned in hisheavenly court, since he “will repay each person according towhat they have done” and each person has, in fact, sinned (Rom.2:6; 3:23). But what will God do with young children and the mentallychallenged, neither of whom can understand God’s moral law wellenough to sin against it or obey it consciously? How will God treatpeople who could never understand the gospel no matter how clearly anevangelist presents it? The received answer to this question appealsto the idea that we must reach an “age of accountability”before God holds us responsible for our own deeds, and that this agevaries with the individual person. But does Scripture endorse thisidea?

Theparents of miscarried children and those whose children have died atan early age have the greatest emotional stake in the answer to thisquestion. They want to hear that they will see their children again;and the position taken here is that they will, though for a differentreason than the one commonly given. Specifically, we must not saythat the innocence of these children qualifies them for heaven,because Adam’s corruption affects us all (Rom. 5:12; cf. Pss.51:5; 58:3). Their inherited depravity could not show itself in overtsins, at least not at a very early age, but Scripture implies thatthey suffer from it nonetheless. Consequently, as with every case ofsalvation, the future of children and the mentally handicapped isdecided on the basis of God’s grace. They are guilty and standin need of the cross, as we all do. But would God apply the work ofChrist to them by the Spirit before they can function as moral agentsand respond consciously to the gospel? A circ*mstantial case can bemade for answering in the affirmative to this question, with thiscaveat: the argument given applies only to these special cases. Itdoes not encourage the view that unreached sinners are essentiallyinfants in God’s sight and thus justified by similararrangements.

Webegin by noting that God claims some people for his own purposes,even in infancy. He does so in John the Baptist’s case, fillinghim with the Holy Spirit from his mother’s womb (Luke 1:15).David and Jeremiah also see God’s hand upon them from theirearliest days (Ps. 22:10; Jer. 1:5), as does the apostle Paul (Gal.1:15). At a minimum, these texts show us that God can and, in somecases, has dealt with human beings before they could ever respondconsciously to him. David also expects to be personally reunited withhis deceased son, saying, “I will go to him, but he will notreturn to me” (2 Sam. 12:23). A final clue is the responseof Jesus to children during the days of his earthly life. He rebukeshis disciples for keeping children away from him, saying that God’skingdom belongs to “such as these” (Matt. 19:14; Mark10:14; cf. Matt. 18:3). Of course, these episodes are included mainlyto show adults what discipleship means, with special reference tohumility and self-forgetfulness. In following Jesus, we must care nomore for our social status and dignity than young children typicallydo. Yet one would not do well to argue that Jesus welcomes childreninto his company merely for illustrative purposes, as if they mean nomore to him than handy visual aids. The disciples place children lowon their Lord’s list of ministry priorities, and Jesus raisesthem all the way up. Our answer to this question must be an educatedguess, but the safest conclusion seems to be that while childrenstill need the cross, they receive its benefits consistently by othermeans and thus go to heaven when they die.

The word “apocrypha” is derived from a Greek wordmeaning “secret” or “hidden” and refers totexts regarded by some Jews and Christians as religiously valuablebut not meeting the criteria of canonicity. The more specific title“New Testament Apocrypha” distinguishes certain writingsfrom those commonly referred to as “the Apocrypha,” acollection of works written by Jews (with later Christian editing inplaces) between approx. 200 BC and AD 90, recognized as Scripture byRoman Catholic and Orthodox Churches but generally rejected byProtestants (see Apocrypha, Old Testament). What is loosely calledNew Testament Apocrypha is no single collection but actually a vast,amorphous corpus that can only be selectively discussed here. (TheApostolic Fathers, texts written mainly in the late first century andsecond century, and later church fathers are not considered here aspart of this grouping.) In broadest terms, these texts concernthemselves with Jesus Christ and his apostles, but often from aperspective that differs from the NT portraits. Nevertheless, many ofthe works appear to be either dependent upon or influenced by thegenres and characters of the NT, principally gospels, letters,apostolic acts, and apocalypse.

Thesewritings remain outside of the Christian canon for the followingreasons. First, the texts, at least in their final form, werepublished in the postapostolic period (the second century), whereasall of the NT writings were believed to have been written by anapostle (Matthew, John, Paul, Peter) or an apostolic associate (Mark,Luke). Some apocryphal writings (e.g., Gospel of Thomas) may simplyadapt earlier, apostolic tradition. Second, the point of view inthese writings does not represent a broad constituency in the earlychurch. Some appear to reflect the ideology of various gnosticgroups, which became prominent in the second century throughout theMediterranean, with centers in Antioch in Syria and Alexandria inEgypt. Although a diverse phenomenon, gnosticism generally embracedsecret knowledge as a vehicle for salvation from the material world,a development of extreme Platonism. Therefore, Jesus saves through anesoteric teaching, not his atoning death. The diminution of the crossled to the orthodox rejection of this perspective. In attempting torefute gnostics, Irenaeus of Lyons (died c. AD 195) appropriates whathe calls the “rule of faith” (regula fidei), which waspassed on by the apostles and everywhere accepted by the churches(Haer. 1.8.1; 1.9.4). Other apocryphal texts appear to represent aconservative Jewish-Christian perspective. The church graduallyshifted from being primarily a Jewish religious group that acceptednon-Jews to what Christians themselves described as a “thirdrace” in distinction from Jews and pagans. Relationshipsbetween Jews and Christians continued to sour because of mutualpersecution, competition, and misunderstanding. By the secondcentury, some Christian writers claimed God had rejected Israel(e.g., the author of Epistle of Barnabas). Many texts emphasizecelibacy, fasting, and other rigorously ascetic practices, which gobeyond the moderate guidelines in the NT. These factors contributedto the marginalization of Jewish believers in Jesus, making theirwritings suspect. Like the gnostic texts, the primary concern was adiminished Christology. Consequently, many of these writings were notcopied (and therefore preserved) by Christian copyists and thuseventually were lost. However, many texts were discovered at NagHammadi in Egypt in 1945. Scraps of papyri have also been recoveredfrom various sites in the dry sands of the desert. But many of theapocryphal writings survive only in fragments (e.g., Acts of Paul ).

TheNew Testament Apocrypha provide a window into the various waysChristians attempted to live out their faith in Jesus Christ, therise of ascetic monasticism, and why orthodox Christianity ultimatelyparted ways with both rabbinic Judaism and gnosticism. The diversityof the church’s past may provide context and insight for thechallenges of the present.

Gospels

Theapocryphal Gospels often amplify or add to material that is morelimited in the canonical Gospels. This is especially the case withJesus’ youth and the passion narrative. The Infancy Gospel ofThomas depicts, among other things, the child Jesus making sparrowsout of clay and then bringing them to life. The Gospel of Peter,which dates probably from the middle of the second century and islikely dependent on Mark’s Gospel, begins with Jesus’trial and breaks off in what is presumably a resurrection appearanceto a group of disciples. According to some scholars, the Gospel ofPeter is cited by Origen (c. AD 185–255) as evidence thatJesus’ purported brothers were Joseph’s from an earliermarriage, thereby protecting the perpetual virginity of Mary (Comm.ser. Matt. 10.17). This gospel reflects a strong anti-Jewish bias.The Protevangelium of James relates the miraculous birth of Jesus’mother, Mary.

Otherapocryphal Gospels single out a particular apostle who alone is givenspecial revelation. A complete version of the Gospel of Thomas wasdiscovered among the Nag Hammadi writings and is perhaps the earliestapocryphal gospel. The emphasis on Thomas suggests a Syrianprovenance. Containing little narrative, the text is primarily acollection of Jesus’ sayings (loosely grouped according totheme), some of which are dependent on the Gospel of Luke (e.g., 47,104). James, the brother of the Lord, is given prominence (12), butthere are also polemics against traditional Jewish piety: prayer,fasting, alms, and circumcision (6, 14, 53, 104). The Gospel ofJudas, which is dated to around the middle of the second century andsurvives in one or two copies, consists primarily of dialoguesbetween Judas Iscariot and Jesus during his passion. Judas ispresented as the only disciple to recognize Jesus’ true originand identity. In response, Jesus praises him: “You will exceedall of [the other apostles]. For you will sacrifice the man thatclothes me” (43). This text reflects a gnostic point of view(probably Sethian, representing a group that venerated the biblicalfigure of Seth and viewed Jesus as his reincarnation, as in theApocryphon of John, the Gospel of the Egyptians, and the Apocalypseof Paul  ). Whereas Peter makes a confession of faith inthe canonical Gospels, Judas says, “I know who you are andwhere you have come from. You are from the immortal realm of Barbelo”(35). (In gnostic mythology, Barbelo [Coptic for “GreatEmission”] is the divine Mother of all, who is often describedas the “Forethought of the Father,” the “InfiniteOne.”) The Gospel of Judas has Jesus reject the God of Israel(21) and attack the Christian church and its leadership (26–27).

Thechurch fathers often mention Jewish gospels (Gospel of the Hebrews,Gospel of the Nazarenes, Gospel of the Ebionites), including a Hebrewversion of Matthew (Irenaeus, Haer. 3.1.1; Eusebius, Hist. eccl.6.25.4). Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 150–215) cites a sayingof Jesus from the Gospel of the Hebrews: “He that marvels shallreign, and he that has reigned shall rest” (Strom. 2.9.45;5.14.96). Epiphanius (c. AD 310/320–403) preserves part of theGospel of the Ebionites: “It came to pass that John wasbaptizing, and Pharisees and all Jerusalem went out to him and werebaptized. And John had a garment of camel’s hair and a leathergirdle about his waist, and his food, it is said, was wild honey, thetaste of which was that of manna, as a cake dipped in oil”(Pan. 30.13.4–5). The Ebionites (the “poor”) were aJewish-Christian group. The wording may reflect a vegetarianperspective, a popular form of asceticism, which annoyed Epiphanius,who claimed that the Ebionites “were resolved to make the wordof truth into a lie and to put a cake in the place of locusts.”However, the text only claims that the wild honey had the taste ofmanna, “as a cake dipped in oil.” The discovery of papyriin Egypt has also provided agrapha (unwritten sayings) of Jesus.Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840 depicts a debate between Jesus and aPharisaic chief priest over viewing the holy utensils in the templein an impure state.

ApostolicActs

Thissubgenre typically involves a narrative of an apostle’smissionary activity (e.g., Andrew, Peter, John, Paul, Philip) fromthe time of Jesus’ resurrection to his own martyrdom (or, inthe case of John, simply his death). Books of acts also feature otherimportant individuals in the early history of the church, such asBarnabas and even Pilate. Some function to explain how the Christianfaith reached a community. The Acts of Thomas, which originatesprobably in Syrian Christianity, depicts his missionary activity inIndia. They are partly dependent on Luke’s book of Acts, butthey reflect a greater interest in biographical detail. The Acts ofPaul and Thecla provides a physical description of the apostle: “aman of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a goodstate of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, fullof friendliness.” Contrary to popular assumption and theimpression that one gets from Paul’s letters (2 Cor.10:10), the depiction in its cultural context is flattering. Theclais presented as a young, engaged woman from a prominent family inIconium. She believes Paul’s gospel, which emphasizes sexualabstinence (see 1 Cor. 7:1–16). She breaks off herengagement, and the apostle permits her to become a teacher. Thedetails may be a reaction against developments in the early church,which struggled over sexuality and women’s roles in leadership.In the Acts of Peter, Luke’s presentation of a conflict betweenSimon Magus and Simon Peter is greatly expanded; this versiondescribes, among other things, Simon Magus levitating over Rome, onlyto be grounded by the prayers of Peter (4, 6, 9, 11–18, 23,31).

Letters

Theletter genre was not especially popular for those writing Christianapocryphal literature. In one letter, Abgar, king of Edessa, writesJesus, inviting him to visit his city. Jesus responds with acourteous letter relating that he must fulfill his mission but,following his ascension, will send a disciple (see Eusebius, Hist.eccl. 1.13). There are also fourteen letters between Paul and theStoic philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65). No one treats theseletters as authentic, but they do provide insight into earlyChristian curiosities. Paul mentions a letter to the Laodiceans,which has not survived (Col. 4:16), so someone in the fourth centuryor earlier patched together phrases mainly from Philippians andGalatians to provide such a letter. The work known as3 Corinthians, which contains a letter from the Corinthianchurch and Paul’s reply, probably serves the same purpose.

Apocalypses

Anapocalypse features a seer who receives revelation from asupernatural revealer. Apocalypses are attributed to, among others,Paul, Peter, Thomas, Stephen, and James. They typically featurerevelations made by Jesus to his disciples in the period between hisresurrection and ascension. The book of Revelation appears to havehad little influence on these works. Many of them are gnostic. Butthe Apocalypse of Peter, which most likely originated in PalestinianJewish Christianity during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 132–135),was highly valued, particularly for its depiction of hell, in whichtwenty-one sinners suffer in ways appropriate to their sin.

Apocrypha,Old Testament–The Greek word apokrypha means “hidden”or “concealed,” and later it came to refer to religiousbooks considered to be of inferior quality to the OT and the NT.During the third century, several church fathers (e.g., Origen [d.253], Irenaeus [d. c. 200], Tertullian [d. 220]) used this term todistinguish these works from canonical works. Currently, the phrase“Old Testament Apocrypha” refers to Jewish literary workswritten between approximately 200 BC and AD 90 that were included inthe earliest Greek codices of the LXX.

TheApocrypha and the Development of the Canon

Bythe first century AD, many Jews believed that prophecy continued onlyuntil about the time of Ezra, around the end of the fifth century BC,and thus several of the apocryphal works were associated with famousbiblical characters such as Jeremiah, Baruch, or Solomon, most likelyin order to give them credibility. In Matt. 23:34–35; Luke11:49–51 Jesus appears to limit the OT canon to the books knownto be in the Jewish canon. Both passages record Jesus stating thatthe Jewish nation will be held responsible for the blood of theprophets from “the blood of Abel” (see Gen. 4:8–10),the first recorded murder, “to the blood of Zechariah”(see 2 Chron. 24:20–22), the last recorded murder. Theimplication is that biblical history spans from Genesis to Chronicles(most likely the last book in the order of the Hebrew Bible at thetime of Jesus), which is equivalent to saying from Genesis to Malachiin the English Bible.

Basedupon this evidence, it is doubtful that the early Jews everconsidered the apocryphal works part of their canon. In reality, theearly Greek codices were Christian collections from the fourth tofifth centuries AD. Apparently, by that time there were significantquestions concerning which books made up the OT canon. By the end ofthe first century AD, Christians had been dispersed all over theRoman Empire, so it is more than likely that few Christians wouldhave had contact with Jews or exposure to their scriptural canon. Itis reasonable to assume that during this period of uncertainty, theapocryphal books were thought by some to be part of the Jewish OTcanon. A major turning point occurred in the fourth century AD whenJerome (c. 345–420) was asked to write a standardizedtranslation of the Latin Bible. Jerome used original Greek and Hebrewtexts to correct his Latin translation. He did not believe that theapocryphal books were part of the OT since they were not included inthe Hebrew manuscripts. Nevertheless, some argue that he was coercedinto adding them to the Latin Vulgate by Augustine of Hippo(354–430), who believed that at least part of the apocryphalbooks were to be included in the OT canon. The Latin Vulgate becamethe standard translation of the Roman Catholic Church for well over athousand years, and thus the Old Testament Apocrypha were graduallyaccepted in the church. Another major turning point occurred duringthe Protestant Reformation when Luther’s views were argued atthe Council of Trent (convened three times between 1545 and 1563)that the Apocrypha were not part of the OT canon. The Roman CatholicChurch had used 2 Macc. 12:43–45 to substantiate itsdoctrines of purgatory and praying for the dead; likewise Tobit andother apocryphal works were used to substantiate works ofrighteousness (i.e, not faith alone for salvation). On April 8, 1546,at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church decreed that theApocrypha were indeed part of the Christian canon and pronouncedanathema upon those who disagreed.

Sincethe time of Luther, Protestants have rejected the canonicity of theApocrypha. However, the Roman Catholic Church has argued that fifteenapocryphal works are part of their authoritative Scriptures. TheGreek Orthodox Church includes two additional works (3 Maccabees;Psalm 151) in its authoritative canon.

Argumentsagainst including Apocryphal Books in the Canon

Thereare significant arguments for not including these books in thechurch’s authoritative canon.

1. TheNT never cites any apocryphal books as inspired; Jesus’ usageof Scripture suggests that only the books in the Hebrew Bible wereauthoritative (Matt. 23:34–35; Luke 11:50–51).

2. Noneof the apocryphal books claims to be the word of the Lord, as do manyOT books (Num. 35:1, 9; Josh. 1:1; Isa. 1:10, 18, 24; Jer. 1:2; Ezek.1:3; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1).

3. TheOT canon is confirmed by many sources: 2 Esd. 14:45 (twenty-fourbooks); Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.37–42 (twenty-two books);Melito (all OT books except perhaps Esther); the Jerusalem List (allthirty-nine books); Origen (twenty-two books). All of these sourceslist the same thirty-nine OT books except that they are groupeddifferently (with the exception of Melito, who may omit Esther).

4. Thereis little evidence to suggest that there were two different OTcanons, one that developed in Palestine and one in Egypt. In fact,Philo, a Jew from Alexandria, never quotes from an apocryphal book asauthoritative.

5. Thereare significant historical inaccu­racies in the Apocrypha. Forexample, the events in the book of Tobit (1:3–5) arechronologically incompatible: Tobit is said to live in Nineveh about722 BC and yet also to have seen the division of the united kingdomin about 931 BC.

6. Thereare theological inconsistencies. For example, 2 Macc. 12:43–45espouses praying for the dead, but canonical books maintain thatdecisions about one’s eternal destiny can be made only beforedeath (Heb. 9:27). Eleven out of fifteen apocryphal books containsome type of inaccuracies. Those that do not either are very short(i.e., Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men; Prayer ofManasseh) or their content makes it difficult to determine if theycontain errors (i.e., Wisdom of Solomon; Susanna).

7. Manyearly church fathers spoke against the canonicity of much or all ofthe Apocrypha (Melito, Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Athanasius,Jerome); no major church father accepted all of the apocryphal booksuntil Augustine. The apocryphal books have never been universallyaccepted by the church.

8. Theearliest list of OT canon by Melito (c. AD 170) does not includethem.

9. Duringthe Council of Trent, Martin Luther’s views against thecanonicity of the Apocrypha were discussed, citing the NT, earlychurch fathers, and Jewish teachers in support. The Roman CatholicChurch responded by canonizing the Apocrypha.

TheBooks of the Old Testament Apocrypha

Eventhough the apocryphal books should not be considered part of theauthoritative canon, they are useful for understanding Jewish thoughtand interests in the intertestamental period and the development ofcertain concepts during this period (e.g., the importance of theTorah, the apocalyptic view of history, the kingdom of God).

Traditionally,the Apocrypha consisted of fifteen books that were included in RomanCatholic Bibles and were usually identified as deuterocanonical(i.e., second canon) works. However, more recently this number hasbeen reduced to thirteen since 4 Ezra (sometimes called 2 Esdrasor Apocalypse of Ezra) and the Prayer of Manasseh were never found inthe oldest Greek codices of the LXX: Vaticanus (c. AD 350),Sinaiticus (c. AD 400), and Alexandrinus (c. AD 450). These two worksare now correctly considered pseudepigraphal books (i.e., falsewritings that were never thought to be part of the biblical canon).

Thelist below follows the Roman Catholic canon. In addition to thesetexts, several other writings are included in the Greek Orthodox,Armenian, Georgian, Syriac, and Ethiopian canons: 3 Maccabees,4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, Psalms 152–55, 1 Enoch, Jubilees,2 Baruch (Letter of Baruch), 3 Baruch (Apocalypse ofBaruch), 4 Baruch (Paralipomena of Jeremiah), and 1–3Megabyan (Ethiopic Maccabees).

Booksincluded in the Old Testament Apocrypha.Thefollowing thirteen books are included in the Old Testament Apocrypha.

• Wisdomof Solomon (latter part of the first century BC): This work containsJewish wisdom traditions and describes the benefits of wisdom and thejoys that accompany righteous living, as well as punishments for thewicked.

• Sirach(or Ecclesiasticus; c. 180 BC): This book is very similar to thebiblical book of Proverbs, also containing Jewish wisdom traditions.It includes moral and ethical maxims, proverbs, songs of praise,theological and philosophical reflections on life, and customs of theday.

• Tobit(c. 180 BC): A romantic story teaching that God comes to the aid ofthose who remain faithful to his laws. Tobit, a righteous Israeliteliving in Nineveh, is an example to the rest of the captives even inthe midst of great adversities. Tobit becomes blind and prays to Godto restore his sight. At the same time in Media, Sarah, Tobit’sniece, who had lost seven bridegrooms in succession, prays to God fordeliverance from the demon Asmodeus. God sends the angel Raphael todeliver them both.

• Judith(c. 150 BC): Nebuchadnezzar sends Holofernes to punish the peoplewest of Babylon for their insubordination. The author exhorts theJews to remain obedient to the law amid foreign occupation by theBabylonians. The people of Judea pray to God for help; in answer,Judith beguiles Holofernes, gets him thoroughly drunk, and thendecapitates him.

• 1 Esdras(or 3 Ezra; c. second to first century BC): This book is aretelling of parts of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. It beginsabruptly describing the reinstitution of the Passover by King Josiahin Jerusalem about 622/621 BC and continues to Ezra’s reformsabout 458 BC. The majority of the book emphasizes Ezra’sreforms.

• 1 Maccabees(c. latter part of the second century BC): This book describes Judeanhistory and especially the military campaigns of the Maccabees fromthe accession of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) in about 175 BC to thereign of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC). This work is a veryaccurate history and is the primary source of recorded events duringthis period.

• 2 Maccabees(c. end of second century to beginning of first century BC): Thisbook is much more theologically oriented than 1 Maccabees inrecording events of Jewish history from the time of the high priestOnias III and the Syrian king Seleucus IV (c. 180 BC) tothe defeat of Nicanor’s army (c. 161 BC). It appears to adoptan anti-Hasmonean viewpoint by highlighting concepts such as theresurrection of the body and the efficacious nature of martyrdom.

• Baruch(c. second to first century BC): This claims to be a letter fromBaruch to those living in Jerusalem. It begins with a confirmationthat Jerusalem was destroyed because of Israel’s sinfulness andwas to be read on a feast day as a confession of their sin (1:14).

• Epistleof Jeremiah (third to first century BC): The date of this work is nowconfirmed by a first-century BC Greek manuscript from Cave 7 ofQumran. The text contains 72 or 73 verses and is most likelyinfluenced by Jer. 10:1–16. This letter, supposedly fromJeremiah to Jewish captives soon to be taken to Babylon, describesthe folly of worshiping idols.

• Additionsto Esther (c. second to first century BC): These six additions (e.g.,Mordecai’s dream and its interpretation, prayers of Mordecaiand Esther) to the Greek text of Esther apparently were introduced tohighlight the religious aspect of the story that the author felt waslacking.

• Susanna(c. second to first century BC): This work and the next two wereadded to the book of Daniel sometime during the first century BC.Susanna is tried and found guilty because of the lies that two eldersof Israel told about her after she refused their sexual advances.Daniel, however, inspired by God, cross-examines the two men, provesthat they have lied, and exonerates Susanna.

• Beland the Dragon (c. second to first century BC): This work containstwo stories demonstrating the wisdom of Daniel. In the first, heoutwits the priests of Bel who go each night through a secretentrance to eat the offerings left for Bel. Daniel reveals theirdeception and proves their great statue of Bel, the patron deity ofBabylon, to be a worthless idol. In the second story, Daniel isthrown into the lions’ den for killing a dragon that theBabylonians believed to be a god. However, the angel of the Lordprotects Daniel and brings Habakkuk from Judea with food for him. Onthe seventh day, Daniel is removed from the lions’ den and hisenemies are thrown in.

• Prayerof Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men (c. second to firstcentury BC): Before being thrown into the fiery furnace (cf. Dan.3:23), Abednego (“Azariah” in Hebrew) prays, asking Godto bring glory to his name through this ordeal. Then follows the songof the three young men (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), who singpraise and glory to God.

Booksno longer in the Old Testament Apocrypha. Thefollowing two books are no longer included in the Old TestamentApocrypha.

• 2 Esdras(or 4 Ezra, Apocalypse of Ezra; c. first century AD): Anapocalyptic book dealing with the problem of evil in the world, ormore specifically why an all-powerful, loving God allows such greatevils to befall humankind. The reason why turns out to be humansinfulness.

• Prayerof Manasseh (c. second to first century BC): According to 2 Chron.33:10–13, Manasseh prayed to God while in captivity and askedfor forgiveness for his many sins. God responds by forgiving him andallowing him to return to Israel. This work purports to record thisamazing prayer.

Bible formation and canon development are best understood inlight of historical events and theological principles. In thehistorical-theological process we learn what God did and how heengaged a variety of people to produce Scripture as the word of God.The Bible is the written revelation of the triune God, who madehimself known to his creation. The divine actions of God to revealhimself resulted in a written text recognized to be authoritative andthus copied and preserved for future generations. The process ofrecognizing and collecting authoritative books of the Scripturesoccurred over time and involved consensus.

BibleFormation

Revelation.Theprocess of Bible formation begins with God revealing. The act ofrevelation involved God communicating truth to the human writers in aprogressive and unified manner. Inspiration is the act of God theHoly Spirit, who superintended the biblical authors so that theycomposed the books of Scripture exactly as he intended. God used thebiblical writers, their personalities and their writing styles, in amanner that kept them from error in composing the original writtenproduct, the Scriptures. The resulting books of the Bible constituteGod’s permanent special revelation to humankind.

BothTestaments affirm the work of revelation along with the formation ofa body of divine writings. The OT is dominated by the phrase “thussays the Lord” and similar expressions (cf. Gen. 9:8; Josh.24:27; Isa. 1:2; Jer. 1:7 and contrast Ps. 135:15–19). Everypart of the OT is viewed as the word of God (Rom. 3:2). This isconfirmed by Jesus’ attitude toward the Scriptures (Matt.19:4–5; 21:42; 22:29; cf. Luke 11:50–51; 24:44).

FourNT passages help us understand the work of inspiration. A factualstatement regarding the extent and nature of inspiration is made in2 Tim. 3:16. According to 2 Pet. 1:19–20, the HolySpirit purposefully carried persons along to produce the propheticword, and 1 Cor. 2:10–13 supports the choice of the wordsin the work of composing the inspired product. Finally, Petercomments that Paul was given wisdom to produce inspired literarydocuments in the canon of Scripture (2 Pet. 3:14–18).

Authority.Books formed and authored by God in this manner are authoritative.Because the Bible is the divinely inspired word of God reliablycomposed in the originals, it is binding upon people in theirrelationship with God and other people. Biblical authority derivesfrom God’s eternal character and the content of his wordpreserved in Scripture. The inscripturated word of God isauthoritative and requires obedience.

Theauthority of God’s word is affirmed and illustrated in thecreation and fall narratives. In the fall, Adam and Eve rebelledagainst God’s command (Gen. 3:3–4) and were expelled fromthe garden. In subsequent periods of biblical history, God’sspoken and written word continued to be the basis for belief andconduct. God summarized his will in the Ten Commandments (Exod.20:1-17; Deut. 5:6–21) and held his people accountable to it(Deut. 6:2; Josh. 1:8; 2 Kings 17:5–23). The authoritativeword embraced by faith protects the believer from sin (Ps. 119:11).The fool is the person who rejects God’s authority (Pss. 14:1;53:1). The apostle Paul acknowledged the authority of the gospel forhis own life and ministry (Gal. 1:6–9). God the Holy Spiritimpresses upon the believer the authority of the Bible as thereliable rule for faith and practice (John 6:63).

Godmade provision for a reliable and trustworthy preservation of hisauthoritative word in the multiplicity of extant manuscripts. Godcommanded that his revealed word be copied (Deut. 17:8–18;24:8; 31:9, 25–26; 33:8–10) for administrative andpersonal purposes (Deut. 6:6; Josh. 1:8; 23:6; Prov. 3:3; 7:3).Through this process of multiplication the word of God was preserved(Ps. 119:152, 160; Isa. 40:8; cf. Matt. 5:17–18; John 10:35;1 Pet. 1:22–25).

Canonization

Canonizationis the next critical step in the development of the Bible. The word“canon” (Gk. kanōn) refers to a standard, norm, orrule (Gal. 6:16; cf. Ezek. 42:16), and when applied to the Bible, itdesignates the collection of books revealed by God, divinelyinspired, and recognized by the people of God as the authoritativenorm for faith and practice. The presupposition of canonicity is thatGod spoke to his human creatures and his word was accuratelyrecorded. Since inspiration determines canonicity, the books composedby human beings under the direction of the Holy Spirit functionedauthoritatively at the time of writing. The people of God thenrecognized and collected the books that they discerned to be inspiredand authoritative (1 Thess. 2:10–16; 2 Pet. 3:15).

Thecanonical process.The challenge associated with canon and Bible formation is that theScriptures do not reveal a detailed historical process forrecognizing and collecting inspired works. An understanding of thisprocess is derived from the testimony of Jesus, biblical principles,and historical precedents.

Canonicalidentification is associated with the witness of the Holy Spirit, whoworked in connection with the believers to recognize the writtendocuments given by inspiration (1 Thess. 2:13). The Holy Spiritenabled believers to discern a book’s authority and itscompatibility with existing canonical revelation (Isa. 8:20; Acts17:11). Although the question of authorship cannot be positivelysettled for every OT or NT book, believers recognized the prophets asthe OT authors (Deut. 18:14–22) and the apostles as the NTauthors. Canonical books were recognized to bear the power of God andto contain an effective message (2 Tim. 3:15–16; Heb.4:12; 1 Pet. 1:23).

Overtime, the authoritative books of Scripture were collected into a bodyof literature that today forms one book, the Bible. During thisprocess, some believers struggled with the message, content, andambiguous authorship of books such as Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,and Esther in the OT and Hebrews, James, and 2 Peter in the NT.The pattern of composition and canonical process for the OT providedthe foundation for the composition and development of the NT canon.Therefore, the NT books that came to be recognized as canonical werethose that were composed in connection with an apostle, doctrinallysound, and widely circulated and used by the churches.

Inthe collection task some texts were recognized (hom*ologoumena), somewere disputed (antilegomena), and others were rejected as unorthodox(pseudepigrapha). Historically, there is no evidence for widespreadacceptance of the present-day canon of sixty-six books until thethird century AD.

Structureand content.Overthe centuries, several canonical lists began to emerge, ofteninfluenced by particular theological conclusions. For example, theSamaritan canon, which includes only the first five books of our OT,was compiled by the Samaritans, who were hostile to anything inIsrael or Judea outside Samaria. Today, Christian traditions vary intheir inclusion or omission of the Apocrypha from their Bibles and intheir list of which books are contained in the Apocrypha.

TheBabylonian canon, accepted as standard by Jews, contains all thebooks now recognized as the OT and is divided into three parts: theLaw, the Prophets, and the Writings. This canon is also known as theTanak, an acronym derived from the Hebrew words for “law”(torah), “prophets” (nebi’im), “writings”(ketubim). This canonical list traditionally includes twenty-fourbooks (the twelve Minor Prophets are considered to be one book, asare 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, andEzra-Nehemiah). The twenty-four books of this canonical list are thesame as the thirty-nine OT books in current English Bible editions.The law or instruction section includes the first five books of Moses(Genesis through Deuteronomy). The Prophets section is divided intothe Former and Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets are thehistorical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The LatterProphets include both the Major and the Minor Prophets. The Writingssection contains both poetic and wisdom material, along with somehistorical material.

Historicalreferences to this canonical format are found in extrabiblicalsources as early as the second century BC. The grandson of Jesus BenSira referenced a threefold canon in the prologue of the apocryphalbook Sirach (c. 190 BC); Josephus referenced it in Against Apion (AD37–95). Jesus acknowledged the threefold division in Luke 24:44(cf. Matt. 23:34). Among Christian sources, this division ispreserved in the oldest extant list of OT books, associated withBishop Melito of Sardis (AD 170). Tertullian, an early Latin churchfather (AD 160–250), Origen (AD 254), Hilary of Poitiers (AD305–366), and Jerome (AD 340–420) affirmed an OT canon oftwenty-two or twenty-four books. Most current English versions followa fourfold structure of law, history, poetry, and prophets.

Thetwenty-seven books of the NT are attested in lists associated withchurches in the eastern and western parts of the Mediterranean world.Two such witnesses are the Thirty-ninth Paschal Letter of Athanasius(AD 367) and the Council of Carthage (AD 397). The canonical listassociated with Marcion and the Muratorian list represent fragmentarylists from the early part of the second century AD. In terms ofusage, a majority of church fathers recognized and used thetwenty-seven NT books in our canon. See also Apocrypha, NewTestament; Apocrypha, Old Testament.

Bible formation and canon development are best understood inlight of historical events and theological principles. In thehistorical-theological process we learn what God did and how heengaged a variety of people to produce Scripture as the word of God.The Bible is the written revelation of the triune God, who madehimself known to his creation. The divine actions of God to revealhimself resulted in a written text recognized to be authoritative andthus copied and preserved for future generations. The process ofrecognizing and collecting authoritative books of the Scripturesoccurred over time and involved consensus.

BibleFormation

Revelation.Theprocess of Bible formation begins with God revealing. The act ofrevelation involved God communicating truth to the human writers in aprogressive and unified manner. Inspiration is the act of God theHoly Spirit, who superintended the biblical authors so that theycomposed the books of Scripture exactly as he intended. God used thebiblical writers, their personalities and their writing styles, in amanner that kept them from error in composing the original writtenproduct, the Scriptures. The resulting books of the Bible constituteGod’s permanent special revelation to humankind.

BothTestaments affirm the work of revelation along with the formation ofa body of divine writings. The OT is dominated by the phrase “thussays the Lord” and similar expressions (cf. Gen. 9:8; Josh.24:27; Isa. 1:2; Jer. 1:7 and contrast Ps. 135:15–19). Everypart of the OT is viewed as the word of God (Rom. 3:2). This isconfirmed by Jesus’ attitude toward the Scriptures (Matt.19:4–5; 21:42; 22:29; cf. Luke 11:50–51; 24:44).

FourNT passages help us understand the work of inspiration. A factualstatement regarding the extent and nature of inspiration is made in2 Tim. 3:16. According to 2 Pet. 1:19–20, the HolySpirit purposefully carried persons along to produce the propheticword, and 1 Cor. 2:10–13 supports the choice of the wordsin the work of composing the inspired product. Finally, Petercomments that Paul was given wisdom to produce inspired literarydocuments in the canon of Scripture (2 Pet. 3:14–18).

Authority.Books formed and authored by God in this manner are authoritative.Because the Bible is the divinely inspired word of God reliablycomposed in the originals, it is binding upon people in theirrelationship with God and other people. Biblical authority derivesfrom God’s eternal character and the content of his wordpreserved in Scripture. The inscripturated word of God isauthoritative and requires obedience.

Theauthority of God’s word is affirmed and illustrated in thecreation and fall narratives. In the fall, Adam and Eve rebelledagainst God’s command (Gen. 3:3–4) and were expelled fromthe garden. In subsequent periods of biblical history, God’sspoken and written word continued to be the basis for belief andconduct. God summarized his will in the Ten Commandments (Exod.20:1-17; Deut. 5:6–21) and held his people accountable to it(Deut. 6:2; Josh. 1:8; 2 Kings 17:5–23). The authoritativeword embraced by faith protects the believer from sin (Ps. 119:11).The fool is the person who rejects God’s authority (Pss. 14:1;53:1). The apostle Paul acknowledged the authority of the gospel forhis own life and ministry (Gal. 1:6–9). God the Holy Spiritimpresses upon the believer the authority of the Bible as thereliable rule for faith and practice (John 6:63).

Godmade provision for a reliable and trustworthy preservation of hisauthoritative word in the multiplicity of extant manuscripts. Godcommanded that his revealed word be copied (Deut. 17:8–18;24:8; 31:9, 25–26; 33:8–10) for administrative andpersonal purposes (Deut. 6:6; Josh. 1:8; 23:6; Prov. 3:3; 7:3).Through this process of multiplication the word of God was preserved(Ps. 119:152, 160; Isa. 40:8; cf. Matt. 5:17–18; John 10:35;1 Pet. 1:22–25).

Canonization

Canonizationis the next critical step in the development of the Bible. The word“canon” (Gk. kanōn) refers to a standard, norm, orrule (Gal. 6:16; cf. Ezek. 42:16), and when applied to the Bible, itdesignates the collection of books revealed by God, divinelyinspired, and recognized by the people of God as the authoritativenorm for faith and practice. The presupposition of canonicity is thatGod spoke to his human creatures and his word was accuratelyrecorded. Since inspiration determines canonicity, the books composedby human beings under the direction of the Holy Spirit functionedauthoritatively at the time of writing. The people of God thenrecognized and collected the books that they discerned to be inspiredand authoritative (1 Thess. 2:10–16; 2 Pet. 3:15).

Thecanonical process.The challenge associated with canon and Bible formation is that theScriptures do not reveal a detailed historical process forrecognizing and collecting inspired works. An understanding of thisprocess is derived from the testimony of Jesus, biblical principles,and historical precedents.

Canonicalidentification is associated with the witness of the Holy Spirit, whoworked in connection with the believers to recognize the writtendocuments given by inspiration (1 Thess. 2:13). The Holy Spiritenabled believers to discern a book’s authority and itscompatibility with existing canonical revelation (Isa. 8:20; Acts17:11). Although the question of authorship cannot be positivelysettled for every OT or NT book, believers recognized the prophets asthe OT authors (Deut. 18:14–22) and the apostles as the NTauthors. Canonical books were recognized to bear the power of God andto contain an effective message (2 Tim. 3:15–16; Heb.4:12; 1 Pet. 1:23).

Overtime, the authoritative books of Scripture were collected into a bodyof literature that today forms one book, the Bible. During thisprocess, some believers struggled with the message, content, andambiguous authorship of books such as Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,and Esther in the OT and Hebrews, James, and 2 Peter in the NT.The pattern of composition and canonical process for the OT providedthe foundation for the composition and development of the NT canon.Therefore, the NT books that came to be recognized as canonical werethose that were composed in connection with an apostle, doctrinallysound, and widely circulated and used by the churches.

Inthe collection task some texts were recognized (hom*ologoumena), somewere disputed (antilegomena), and others were rejected as unorthodox(pseudepigrapha). Historically, there is no evidence for widespreadacceptance of the present-day canon of sixty-six books until thethird century AD.

Structureand content.Overthe centuries, several canonical lists began to emerge, ofteninfluenced by particular theological conclusions. For example, theSamaritan canon, which includes only the first five books of our OT,was compiled by the Samaritans, who were hostile to anything inIsrael or Judea outside Samaria. Today, Christian traditions vary intheir inclusion or omission of the Apocrypha from their Bibles and intheir list of which books are contained in the Apocrypha.

TheBabylonian canon, accepted as standard by Jews, contains all thebooks now recognized as the OT and is divided into three parts: theLaw, the Prophets, and the Writings. This canon is also known as theTanak, an acronym derived from the Hebrew words for “law”(torah), “prophets” (nebi’im), “writings”(ketubim). This canonical list traditionally includes twenty-fourbooks (the twelve Minor Prophets are considered to be one book, asare 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, andEzra-Nehemiah). The twenty-four books of this canonical list are thesame as the thirty-nine OT books in current English Bible editions.The law or instruction section includes the first five books of Moses(Genesis through Deuteronomy). The Prophets section is divided intothe Former and Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets are thehistorical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The LatterProphets include both the Major and the Minor Prophets. The Writingssection contains both poetic and wisdom material, along with somehistorical material.

Historicalreferences to this canonical format are found in extrabiblicalsources as early as the second century BC. The grandson of Jesus BenSira referenced a threefold canon in the prologue of the apocryphalbook Sirach (c. 190 BC); Josephus referenced it in Against Apion (AD37–95). Jesus acknowledged the threefold division in Luke 24:44(cf. Matt. 23:34). Among Christian sources, this division ispreserved in the oldest extant list of OT books, associated withBishop Melito of Sardis (AD 170). Tertullian, an early Latin churchfather (AD 160–250), Origen (AD 254), Hilary of Poitiers (AD305–366), and Jerome (AD 340–420) affirmed an OT canon oftwenty-two or twenty-four books. Most current English versions followa fourfold structure of law, history, poetry, and prophets.

Thetwenty-seven books of the NT are attested in lists associated withchurches in the eastern and western parts of the Mediterranean world.Two such witnesses are the Thirty-ninth Paschal Letter of Athanasius(AD 367) and the Council of Carthage (AD 397). The canonical listassociated with Marcion and the Muratorian list represent fragmentarylists from the early part of the second century AD. In terms ofusage, a majority of church fathers recognized and used thetwenty-seven NT books in our canon. See also Apocrypha, NewTestament; Apocrypha, Old Testament.

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

Devotion or service that is improper. Worship, whether falseor true, generally consists of two aspects that are distinct but notnecessarily separate: (1)the performance of certain rituals,including sacrifice, circumcision, baptism, and so forth; (2)theattitudes and activities that reflect devotion to a person or object.The first aspect shows worship as ritual, consisting of formal,regulated elements. The second aspect shows worship as devotion,consisting of a life of piety. False worship occurs when a worshiperfails in one or both of these aspects.

Formsof False Worship

TheBible describes false worship occurring in three different ways:(1)the worshiper demonstrates devotion to anything other thanGod, (2)the worshiper performs a ritual contrary to itsinstructed observance, and (3)the worshiper performs a ritualwhile leading a life of unrepentant disobedience to God.

Themost severe form of false worship is when a worshiper demonstratesdevotion to anything other than God. This type of false worship mayinclude worship as ritual in which a rite or ceremony is performeddirectly for another god. Some rituals are specifically mentioned inthe Bible: passing children through fire (2Kings 16:3; 17:17;21:6), consorting with shrine prostitutes (esp. Hos. 4:14), andoffering sacrifices to idols (esp. Lev. 17:7). This type of falseworship may also include attitudes and actions that demonstrate ahigher degree of devotion to something other than the true God. Thisdevotion may be to another god or object, even material wealth (cf.Col. 3:5, where Paul equates greed with idolatry).

Thesecond form of false worship involves performing a ritual contrary toits instructed observance. At Mount Sinai, God gives a code of lawsthat regulate the practice of making sacrifices and offerings,confining them to certain personnel (priests and Levites), certaincirc*mstances (cleanness), certain animals or plants (depending onthe sacrifice and the wealth of the offerer), certain times(Passover, Day of Atonement), and a certain location (tent ofmeeting, later the temple). On occasion, the law requires death asthe penalty for failure to observe the rituals correctly (Exod.30:20–38; Lev. 10:1–3; 16:2). This type of false worshipis basically limited to the OT because of the highly regulated andritualistic nature of Israel’s worship. Although the NTcontains rituals of worship, there is no indication of a censuredmethod of observation, only of an improper attitude (1Cor.11:27–33).

Thethird form of false worship involves performing a ritual while livinga life of unrepentant disobedience to God. The Bible addresses thistype of false worship in several passages (1Sam. 15:22; Isa. 1;Amos 4–5; Mic. 6). They demonstrate that even if the ritual isperformed correctly and toward the true God rather than another god,a sinful lifestyle of the worshiper will invalidate the worship.Worship is not automatically accepted simply because it is performedin the right way by the right official at the right time for theright God; it has ethical demands (esp. Isa. 1:11–23; Jer.14:7–10; Amos 4:4–13; 5:21–27). The prophets makeit clear that God not only rejects worship from wicked, unrepentantworshipers but also abhors it (esp. Isa. 1:11–23; Amos5:21–27).

Ritualand Ethical Aspects of False Worship

Regardlessof the form of false worship, God takes it seriously. Ritual andethical aspects of worship are both important. The deaths of Nadaband Abihu provide a good example of the importance of the ritualaspects of worship; they died because they performed a ritualcontrary to its prescribed manner (Lev. 10:1). The text does notconnect their death to some ethical failing but rather states thatthey profaned God by their ritual disobedience (cf. 10:1–3).

Onother occasions, the lack of proper ritual observance accompaniesserious ethical failings. For instance, Hophni and Phinehas committedtwo great transgressions. First, they performed the sacrificescontrary to regulation for their selfish gain, falling short bothritually and ethically. Second, they committed acts of fornication atthe place of worship (1Sam. 2:13–17, 22). The judgmentupon them was a result of both transgressions. Malachi rebukes theIsraelites of his day because the animals that they brought forsacrifice, being diseased or disabled, were unacceptable according toregulation (Mal. 1:7–14). The ritual transgression revealedtheir lack of devotion to God, which was reflected in their ethicalfailings as well (2:8–12).

Onthe other hand, the Bible emphasizes the priority of the ethicalaspects of worship over the ritual. When Saul does not wait forSamuel as Samuel commanded him but instead makes an offering beforeSamuel arrives, Samuel rebukes Saul because of his disobedience toSamuel’s instruction (delivered as a word of the Lord), notbecause of his method for carrying out the ritual (1Sam.15:22). When Jeremiah speaks of the covenant at Mount Sinai, heemphasizes God’s demand for devotion instead of the ritualobservances (Jer. 7:22–23).

Otherpassages show that proper worship is possible even without a ritualelement. Micah defines proper worship without ritual elements, butpurely in ethical terms (Mic. 6:8). When asked about the proper placeof worship, Jesus tells the Samaritan woman that the location isirrelevant, only that worship must occur in spirit and truth (John4:19–24).

Idolatry

Themost serious and most widespread form of false worship is idolatry.In a technical sense, idolatry is creating a physical representationof a deity. In a more general sense, idolatry involves any sign ofdevotion to anything other than the one true God. Idolatry in the OTconsists of both making an image of God and making images of otherdeities. Both practices are forbidden in the Ten Commandments, whichare a succinct presentation of God’s ethical demands. Theincident of the golden calf is a paradigmatic case of idolatry.Israel created a physical representation of the God who brought themup from Egypt (Exod. 32:1–8). Jeroboam followed this example byerecting two golden calves in Israel, again as images of the God whobrought Israel up from Egypt (1Kings 12:25–33). Althoughthese cases involve an image of God, idolatry is usually closelyconnected with the worship of other gods (1Kings 14:9; 2Kings17:7–12; 22:17). Idolatry is one of the main reasons for theexile of both the northern and the southern kingdoms (2Kings17:7–12; Isa. 2:8–22; Jer. 1:14–16).

In systematic theology, “foreknowledge” usuallyrefers to the doctrine that God knows all things, events, and personsbefore they exist or occur and that this knowledge has been his fromall eternity. No single Hebrew term in the OT corresponds to theEnglish term; the concept is expressed rather on the phrase orsentence level. In the NT, the Greek verb proginōskō andnoun prognōsis are translated “foreknow” and“foreknowledge,” respectively. Recently in evangelicalcircles there has been intense debate as to whether foreknowledge andomniscience are in fact taught in the biblical texts.

OldTestament

Inthe OT narratives, especially in the Pentateuch, there are numerousinstances that indicate some limitations to God’s knowledge ingeneral and his foreknowledge in particular. God appears to besomewhat surprised by how wicked humanity has become before hedecides to send the flood (Gen. 6:5). God comes down and discoversthat the inhabitants of Babel have started to build a tower andconsiders how to stop the activity (11:5–7). God comes down toascertain whether the outcry that has come to his ears about the sinof Sodom and Gomorrah is actually as bad as the reports wouldindicate (18:20–21). God tests Abraham by commanding him tooffer Isaac as a sacrifice, and when Abraham begins to do so, hedeclares that now he knows that Abraham really fears him (22:1–18).

Often,narratives such as these are regarded by theologians as cases ofanthropomorphism, statements made about God that speak of him as ifhe had human characteristics—in this case, limited knowledge.And certainly there are many other narratives in the Pentateuch thatappear to give the opposite picture. God asks Cain where his brotherAbel is, though he apparently already knows the answer (Gen. 4:9–10).God relates to Abraham the course that Israelite history will takefor the next several hundred years (15:13–16). God seems to bein a real-time chess match with Pharaoh, but in actuality God knowsall the moves that both he and Pharaoh will make before the game everbegins (Exod. 3:19–22; 4:21–23; 7:1–5).

Giventhis data, perhaps the better explanation for what is happening inthese texts is not that the biblical narrator is employinganthropomorphism but rather that God is accommodating himself both tothe characters in the narrative and to the narrator of the stories.That is, at this stage of revelatory history God is not yet revealinghimself as fully omniscient and prescient of the future in itsentirety. In the conceptual world of the ancient Near East, deitieswere regularly portrayed as being interactive—deliberating,investigating, discovering, making decisions, and so forth. Godtherefore may well have accommodated himself to the larger milieu inrevealing himself to the patriarchs and earliest biblical narrators.

Whateverthe case may be, later biblical revelation certainly seems to presentGod as fully omniscient and prescient. “Death and Destructionlie open before the Lord—how much more do human hearts!”(Prov. 15:11). Before words reach our tongues, God knows themcompletely (Ps. 139:4). No one has ever had to keep God informed orprovide him with counsel (Isa. 40:13–14). There are no limitsto his understanding (Ps. 147:5). The God of Israel challenges allidols and all other gods to a foreknowledge contest: if they areable, let them tell what is going to happen, as Yahweh does (Isa.42:9; 44:6–8; 48:3–8). God alone makes the end known fromthe beginning (Isa. 46:10), and he has been doing so from ancienttimes (Acts 15:17–18). God knew Jeremiah long before he wasever a fetus (Jer. 1:5). Our prayers do not make God finally aware ofour situation; he already knows what our needs are (Matt. 6:8).Indeed, God answers our prayers before they are even prayed (Isa.65:24). “Nothing in all creation is hidden from God’ssight. Everything is uncovered and laid bare” before his eyes(Heb. 4:13).

NewTestament

Oneespecially important exegetical question for the NT involves theprecise meaning of the aforementioned Greek words, proginōskō(“foreknow”) and prognōsis (“foreknowledge”).The question concerns whether these words, in their contexts, aremerely cognitive terms, indicating simply that God knows thingsbefore they happen, or whether the terms are volitional terms and/oraffective terms. That is, do they indicate foreordaining and/orforeloving? Are they terms that have basically the same meaning as“election” and “predestination”?

Givingcredence to this position is the fact that in some of the passageswhere these words occur there are other words that definitely referto God willing things to happen. In Acts 2:23, Peter declares thatJesus was handed over to his crucifiers by “God’sdeliberate plan and foreknowledge.” The verse can hardly meanthat God decided to do this because he already knew it was going tohappen. Rather, the terms “deliberate plan” and“foreknowledge” act together to convey the single idea ofGod’s complete control, planning, and sovereignty in the deathof Jesus. Likewise, in 1Pet. 1:20 the word does not mean thatthe Son was simply “foreknown” before the foundation ofthe world, but rather that he was “chosen” (NIV),“destined” (NRSV), “foreordained” (KJV).

InRom. 11:2, Paul states that God has not rejected “his people,whom he foreknew.” Again, it is hard to read this as being onlycognitive. Rather, the use of the term appears to imply some kind of“affective” foreknowing, a “setting his love upon”(cf. Deut. 7:7–8), a choosing. It is important to note that thetext says God foreknew not things but people. On the one hand, Godforeknew all people who would ever exist, but in this passage theforeknowing refers to a particular people. And the foreknowing mostlikely takes its sense from the use of the word “know” inthe OT, which on numerous occasions refers to the relationship ofacknowledgment and love between God and his people.

Inthe same way, in Rom. 8:29 “those God foreknew he alsopredestined,” “foreknew” again appears to be avolitional, affective term—that is, “those whom God sethis love upon.” That it means that God knew how these peoplewould respond to the gospel and then chose them seems to be excludedby passages such as Rom. 9:11–12, where God’s purposes inelection are not determined by people’s actions. Finally, in1Pet. 1:1–2 the “elect” to whom Peter iswriting are elect according to “foreknowledge of God”;not that God foreknew things about them, but that God foreknew them.This understanding of the terms in context seems preferable.

In systematic theology, “foreknowledge” usuallyrefers to the doctrine that God knows all things, events, and personsbefore they exist or occur and that this knowledge has been his fromall eternity. No single Hebrew term in the OT corresponds to theEnglish term; the concept is expressed rather on the phrase orsentence level. In the NT, the Greek verb proginōskō andnoun prognōsis are translated “foreknow” and“foreknowledge,” respectively. Recently in evangelicalcircles there has been intense debate as to whether foreknowledge andomniscience are in fact taught in the biblical texts.

OldTestament

Inthe OT narratives, especially in the Pentateuch, there are numerousinstances that indicate some limitations to God’s knowledge ingeneral and his foreknowledge in particular. God appears to besomewhat surprised by how wicked humanity has become before hedecides to send the flood (Gen. 6:5). God comes down and discoversthat the inhabitants of Babel have started to build a tower andconsiders how to stop the activity (11:5–7). God comes down toascertain whether the outcry that has come to his ears about the sinof Sodom and Gomorrah is actually as bad as the reports wouldindicate (18:20–21). God tests Abraham by commanding him tooffer Isaac as a sacrifice, and when Abraham begins to do so, hedeclares that now he knows that Abraham really fears him (22:1–18).

Often,narratives such as these are regarded by theologians as cases ofanthropomorphism, statements made about God that speak of him as ifhe had human characteristics—in this case, limited knowledge.And certainly there are many other narratives in the Pentateuch thatappear to give the opposite picture. God asks Cain where his brotherAbel is, though he apparently already knows the answer (Gen. 4:9–10).God relates to Abraham the course that Israelite history will takefor the next several hundred years (15:13–16). God seems to bein a real-time chess match with Pharaoh, but in actuality God knowsall the moves that both he and Pharaoh will make before the game everbegins (Exod. 3:19–22; 4:21–23; 7:1–5).

Giventhis data, perhaps the better explanation for what is happening inthese texts is not that the biblical narrator is employinganthropomorphism but rather that God is accommodating himself both tothe characters in the narrative and to the narrator of the stories.That is, at this stage of revelatory history God is not yet revealinghimself as fully omniscient and prescient of the future in itsentirety. In the conceptual world of the ancient Near East, deitieswere regularly portrayed as being interactive—deliberating,investigating, discovering, making decisions, and so forth. Godtherefore may well have accommodated himself to the larger milieu inrevealing himself to the patriarchs and earliest biblical narrators.

Whateverthe case may be, later biblical revelation certainly seems to presentGod as fully omniscient and prescient. “Death and Destructionlie open before the Lord—how much more do human hearts!”(Prov. 15:11). Before words reach our tongues, God knows themcompletely (Ps. 139:4). No one has ever had to keep God informed orprovide him with counsel (Isa. 40:13–14). There are no limitsto his understanding (Ps. 147:5). The God of Israel challenges allidols and all other gods to a foreknowledge contest: if they areable, let them tell what is going to happen, as Yahweh does (Isa.42:9; 44:6–8; 48:3–8). God alone makes the end known fromthe beginning (Isa. 46:10), and he has been doing so from ancienttimes (Acts 15:17–18). God knew Jeremiah long before he wasever a fetus (Jer. 1:5). Our prayers do not make God finally aware ofour situation; he already knows what our needs are (Matt. 6:8).Indeed, God answers our prayers before they are even prayed (Isa.65:24). “Nothing in all creation is hidden from God’ssight. Everything is uncovered and laid bare” before his eyes(Heb. 4:13).

NewTestament

Oneespecially important exegetical question for the NT involves theprecise meaning of the aforementioned Greek words, proginōskō(“foreknow”) and prognōsis (“foreknowledge”).The question concerns whether these words, in their contexts, aremerely cognitive terms, indicating simply that God knows thingsbefore they happen, or whether the terms are volitional terms and/oraffective terms. That is, do they indicate foreordaining and/orforeloving? Are they terms that have basically the same meaning as“election” and “predestination”?

Givingcredence to this position is the fact that in some of the passageswhere these words occur there are other words that definitely referto God willing things to happen. In Acts 2:23, Peter declares thatJesus was handed over to his crucifiers by “God’sdeliberate plan and foreknowledge.” The verse can hardly meanthat God decided to do this because he already knew it was going tohappen. Rather, the terms “deliberate plan” and“foreknowledge” act together to convey the single idea ofGod’s complete control, planning, and sovereignty in the deathof Jesus. Likewise, in 1Pet. 1:20 the word does not mean thatthe Son was simply “foreknown” before the foundation ofthe world, but rather that he was “chosen” (NIV),“destined” (NRSV), “foreordained” (KJV).

InRom. 11:2, Paul states that God has not rejected “his people,whom he foreknew.” Again, it is hard to read this as being onlycognitive. Rather, the use of the term appears to imply some kind of“affective” foreknowing, a “setting his love upon”(cf. Deut. 7:7–8), a choosing. It is important to note that thetext says God foreknew not things but people. On the one hand, Godforeknew all people who would ever exist, but in this passage theforeknowing refers to a particular people. And the foreknowing mostlikely takes its sense from the use of the word “know” inthe OT, which on numerous occasions refers to the relationship ofacknowledgment and love between God and his people.

Inthe same way, in Rom. 8:29 “those God foreknew he alsopredestined,” “foreknew” again appears to be avolitional, affective term—that is, “those whom God sethis love upon.” That it means that God knew how these peoplewould respond to the gospel and then chose them seems to be excludedby passages such as Rom. 9:11–12, where God’s purposes inelection are not determined by people’s actions. Finally, in1Pet. 1:1–2 the “elect” to whom Peter iswriting are elect according to “foreknowledge of God”;not that God foreknew things about them, but that God foreknew them.This understanding of the terms in context seems preferable.

The Bible says that on judgment day, God will evaluate thedeeds done during our lifetime (2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 20:12). Godsaves us by grace alone, through faith alone, because of what Christalone has done; nevertheless, our works serve as the evidence or“fruit” of regeneration (Matt. 7:15–27). Works alsobecome God’s standard when the lost are condemned in hisheavenly court, since he “will repay each person according towhat they have done” and each person has, in fact, sinned (Rom.2:6; 3:23). But what will God do with young children and the mentallychallenged, neither of whom can understand God’s moral law wellenough to sin against it or obey it consciously? How will God treatpeople who could never understand the gospel no matter how clearly anevangelist presents it? The received answer to this question appealsto the idea that we must reach an “age of accountability”before God holds us responsible for our own deeds, and that this agevaries with the individual person. But does Scripture endorse thisidea?

Theparents of miscarried children and those whose children have died atan early age have the greatest emotional stake in the answer to thisquestion. They want to hear that they will see their children again;and the position taken here is that they will, though for a differentreason than the one commonly given. Specifically, we must not saythat the innocence of these children qualifies them for heaven,because Adam’s corruption affects us all (Rom. 5:12; cf. Pss.51:5; 58:3). Their inherited depravity could not show itself in overtsins, at least not at a very early age, but Scripture implies thatthey suffer from it nonetheless. Consequently, as with every case ofsalvation, the future of children and the mentally handicapped isdecided on the basis of God’s grace. They are guilty and standin need of the cross, as we all do. But would God apply the work ofChrist to them by the Spirit before they can function as moral agentsand respond consciously to the gospel? A circ*mstantial case can bemade for answering in the affirmative to this question, with thiscaveat: the argument given applies only to these special cases. Itdoes not encourage the view that unreached sinners are essentiallyinfants in God’s sight and thus justified by similararrangements.

Webegin by noting that God claims some people for his own purposes,even in infancy. He does so in John the Baptist’s case, fillinghim with the Holy Spirit from his mother’s womb (Luke 1:15).David and Jeremiah also see God’s hand upon them from theirearliest days (Ps. 22:10; Jer. 1:5), as does the apostle Paul (Gal.1:15). At a minimum, these texts show us that God can and, in somecases, has dealt with human beings before they could ever respondconsciously to him. David also expects to be personally reunited withhis deceased son, saying, “I will go to him, but he will notreturn to me” (2 Sam. 12:23). A final clue is the responseof Jesus to children during the days of his earthly life. He rebukeshis disciples for keeping children away from him, saying that God’skingdom belongs to “such as these” (Matt. 19:14; Mark10:14; cf. Matt. 18:3). Of course, these episodes are included mainlyto show adults what discipleship means, with special reference tohumility and self-forgetfulness. In following Jesus, we must care nomore for our social status and dignity than young children typicallydo. Yet one would not do well to argue that Jesus welcomes childreninto his company merely for illustrative purposes, as if they mean nomore to him than handy visual aids. The disciples place children lowon their Lord’s list of ministry priorities, and Jesus raisesthem all the way up. Our answer to this question must be an educatedguess, but the safest conclusion seems to be that while childrenstill need the cross, they receive its benefits consistently by othermeans and thus go to heaven when they die.

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

An intimate, exclusive, lifelong covenant relationshipbetween a man and a woman wherein a new family is established.

Theologyof Marriage

Thebiblical basis for marriage is recorded in Gen. 2:18–24, whichestablishes a number of important points relating to marriage.

First,in Gen. 2:18 God highlights the first expressed inadequacy withincreation: the man is alone. The solution to the man’s solitudeis found not among the animals (a fact demonstrated by the carefulsearch expressed by having the man name each of them) but in acreature specifically created to address the problem of his solitude:woman. She is created from his “rib” (a bettertranslation is “side”), so that she is more like him thanany of the animals. In spite of this, she is not a clone, but rathera complement to him. She is described as a “helper suitable forhim,” which highlights her fulfillment of the inadequacy Godhad previously identified.

Second,the role of the wife is not restricted to providing a means by whichto fulfill the command to fill the earth (through bearing children),for the problem identified in Gen. 2:18 cannot be reduced to thisalone. The OT establishes that human beings are relational andsocial, and that isolation is not good, quite aside fromconsiderations relating to childbearing. Indeed, when marriage isemployed as a metaphor for the relationship between God and hispeople (see below), it can be conceptualized quite apart from thenotion of procreation, suggesting that the latter should not beconsidered the primary purpose of marriage.

Third,Gen. 2:23 describes the relationship between the man and the woman interms strongly reminiscent of the traditional kinship formula usedwith reference to family members elsewhere in the OT: “bone ofmy bones, and flesh of my flesh” (cf., e.g., Gen. 29:14; Judg.9:2; 2Sam. 5:1; 19:13–14—similar to the modernEnglish expression “my flesh and blood”; see also Matt.19:5; Eph. 5:31). Although “be united” (othertranslations use “cleave”) and “one flesh”are frequently understood to refer to sexual union, this is not theonly, or even the primary, implication of the words. Genesis 2:24expresses the unification of the husband and the wife as theantithesis of the man’s leaving his father and mother. Theseterms (“leave” or “forsake,” “beunited” or “cleave”) are used elsewhere incovenantal contexts. “Cleave” is usually used of peoplein the sense of clinging to another out of affection and loyalty(Gen. 34:3; Ruth 1:14; 2Sam. 20:2; 1Kings 11:2). It isalso frequently used of Israel clinging to God (Deut. 10:20; 11:22;13:5; 30:20; Josh. 22:5; 23:8). “Forsake” is used ofbreaking covenants (Deut. 12:19; 14:27; 29:25; Jer. 1:16; 2:13, 17,19; 5:7; 16:11; 17:13; 19:4; 22:9). The verb also appears in thecontext of marital divorce in Prov. 2:16–17; Isa. 54:6; 62:4.

Theimplication of Gen. 2:24 is that the man was formerly “united”to his parents in a familial relationship, but when he marries, thecovenantal relationship with his parents is superseded by the newrelationship with his wife. Thus, in establishing the covenantalrelationship of marriage, the man and the woman form a new familyunit (they become “one flesh,” which parallels thekinship formula more fully expressed in Gen. 2:23). It is noteworthythat Gen. 2 thus defines a family as husband and wife; a family isformed before any children are born. Furthermore, the emphasis on thepriority of the relationship between husband and wife is particularlystriking, given both the importance of honoring one’s parents(Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16) and the distinctly patrilocal nature ofinheritance whereby sons would remain in the parents’ householdafter marriage and ultimately inherit a share of it, but daughterswould leave their parents’ house to be with their husbands.

Fourth,the description of the woman as the man’s “helper”cannot alone be used to demonstrate that the wife’s role waseither subordinate or superior to her husband’s. Although theterm is elsewhere often used as a description of God, it is also usedof subordinate helpers, and other contextual indications determinethe relative status of the helper aside from the use of the termitself.

Marriagein the Old Testament

TheBible presents few formal legal, liturgical, or cultic requirementsfor marriage (whereas there are specific laws dealing with divorce),although it does record some details of specific marriages from whichsome insight into marriage practices can be gleaned. Marriages oftenwere established through an arrangement between the parents of thehusband and those of the wife or between the husband and the parentsof his prospective wife (e.g., Gen. 24; 38:6), but there appears tobe some diversity, with examples of a man choosing his own wife(e.g., Judah in Gen. 38:2) or instances when the consent of the womanis sought (e.g., Gen. 24:8, 58). The requirement of a formalcertificate for divorce (Deut. 24:1, 3), together with examples ofmarriage contracts from the ancient Near East, are possible evidencethat marriage within Israel required certification, although there isno explicit confirmation of this in the OT or in Israel prior to therabbinic period. The marriages recorded in the OT often involvedfeasts of varying duration (Gen. 29:22; Judg. 14:12), the bride beingaccompanied to her home in a festive procession that included musicand singing (Ps. 78:63; Jer. 7:34; 16:9), and a blessing pronouncedover the bride that she might bear many children (Gen. 24:60; Ruth4:11). Deuteronomy 22:15 suggests that evidence of the bride’svirginity was retained by the wife’s family to guard againstfalse accusations by a husband seeking divorce.

Anotheraspect of marriage that appears to have been normative although notlegislated was the payment of a mohar, or “bride-price”(Gen. 34:12; Exod. 22:16; 1Sam. 18:25), as well as theprovision of a dowry (1Kings 9:16). The former was a paymentmade by the groom’s family to the bride’s family, thelatter an amount given by the father to his daughter. Typically, theformer appears to have exceeded the latter in value. The bride-price,at least in later times, functioned as insurance should the wife bedivorced.

TheBible does not issue any specific age constraints upon those beingmarried, indicating that the OT practice probably did not differsignificantly from that of other nations in the ancient Near East,where girls were considered ready for marriage once they had reachedpuberty or the age of twelve, and boys were generally slightly older.Constraints were placed on the eligibility of marriage partners, andgenerally marriages were endogamous: marriage partners were chosenfrom within the clan, tribe, or nation (e.g., Gen. 24:1–9;27:46–28:5; cf. Deut. 7:3, which prohibits marriage with some,but not all, foreigners, and Deut. 21:10–14, which permitsIsraelite warriors to take a wife from among female prisoners ofwar). While there were exceptions to this constraint (e.g., Mosesmarried a Midianite; Bathsheba was married to a Hittite; Boaz marriedRuth, a Moabite), in later times the restriction was given legalsanction under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 9:2, 12; Neh. 13:25; cf. Luke14:26; 18:29).

Inspite of the likelihood that many marriages in the OT and the ancientworld in general were arranged, the notion of romantic love as bothan ideal for marriage and a basis for choosing one’s spouseclearly was known and even regarded as desirable. This is reflectedin the approbation given romantic love in Song of Songs as well as instories such as that of Jacob (Gen. 29:18; see also Judg. 14:1–3;1Sam. 18:20).

Socially,marriage was of particular import for a woman in the ancient world,for her well-being usually depended on her place within the house ofeither her father or her husband. Because inheritance was passed downthe male line, women without connection to the house of a man were ina very tenuous state. Inheritance itself was also an important issuein the ancient world, and so great value was placed not just onmarriage but also on bearing children (particularly male [see alsoFirstborn]). Associated with these social functions of marriage inancient Israel is the fact that the OT permits and records a numberof instances of polygamy (always polygyny, never polyandry). Thisafforded social security to widows (see also Levirate Law, LevirateMarriage) and helped ensure the line of inheritance. It should benoted, however, that neither the welfare aspect of marriage nor therelated acceptance of polygamy is based on the biblical foundationfor marriage in Gen. 2, and consequently, polygamy does not reflectthe biblical ideal for marriage.

Thefundamental importance of the marriage relationship is alsohighlighted by the severity of the penalties for adultery (e.g.,Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18; 22:22–24; see also Adultery).

Marriagein the New Testament

Jesusreinforces the importance of marriage, emphasizing its divine originand lifelong nature (Matt. 19:6; Mark 10:9) as well as itsinviolability (Mark 10:2–12). In light of this, Jesus’assertion that at the resurrection there will be no marriage issurprising (Matt. 22:30). Although Jesus offers no explanation as towhy there will be no marriage following the resurrection, it isperhaps likely that the fundamental need identified by God in Gen.2:18 (the man was alone) will be solved in a different manner in theage to come: the intimate help and companionship ideally found inmarriage will be provided in perfected relationship with God and allothers.

Paulelaborates somewhat on marriage in the Christian community. Christianmarriage ought to be characterized by mutual submission in somerespects (1Cor. 7:4; Eph. 5:21) while reflecting someasymmetrical aspects of the relationship between Christ and thechurch in others (Eph. 5:22–33). Christians ought to marrywithin the church (2Cor. 6:14–18, although this passageis not restricted to marriage); however, those who are married tononbelievers are not to seek divorce, but are to remain faithful totheir spouses for the sake of both the spouse and their children(1Cor. 7:10–16).

TheNT makes reference to some of the marriage customs of the day,including sharing a feast (Matt. 22:2–12; Luke 12:36; John2:1–11), the expectation that guests be suitably attired (Matt.22:11–12), and a procession to the groom’s home (Matt.25:1–13; Luke 12:35–38).

SymbolicUse of Marriage

Marriageis used figuratively in both Testaments. The relationship between Godand his people is described with marriage language (Isa. 62:4–5;Jer. 2:2). By using such language, the prophets emphasize theintimacy and unity inherent in the relationship between God and hischosen people, as well as the devastating betrayal when the covenantis broken. The use of the marriage metaphor is thus extended to theuse of divorce language to describe God’s treatment ofunfaithful Israel (Jer. 3:8), and the notion of adultery andpromiscuity is equated with the worship of foreign gods (Ezek. 16;23). The prophet Hosea’s marriage is itself a graphicrepresentation of God’s relationship with his people and, inparticular, their faithlessness; however, it also holds out theanticipation of a new covenant, one wherein God declares, “Youwill call me ‘my husband’; you will no longer call me ‘mymaster’ ” (Hos. 2:16). The metaphorical use ofmarriage to image the relationship between God and his people alsoreflects the implicit belief in the asymmetrical nature of therelationship between husband and wife in the ancient world.

TheNT primarily identifies the church as the bride and Christ as thehusband when using marriage language figuratively (e.g., Eph.5:22–33). In so doing, the NT affirms Christ’s deity byexplicitly depicting him in the place occupied by God in the OT’suse of marriage symbolism. Jesus uses marriage in his parabolicteaching about the kingdom of God (Matt. 22:2–14; 25:1–12),as well as in reference to himself as bridegroom when explaining thebehavior of his disciples (Mark 2:19–20; Luke 5:34–35).Revelation depicts the return of Christ as the time of the marriagebetween the bride and the bridegroom (Rev. 19:7; 21:9).

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals.Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here ison valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as preciousand useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as thegarden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making upthe streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metalsmentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead,and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture,often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will bediscussed in chronological order of appearance.

Copper

Copperwas the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. Itwas used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but wasnot in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines havebeen found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valleyand Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, whichsupplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.

Referencesto copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss thebasic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smeltingprocess (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NTpassages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency(Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hardto use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloybronze.

Bronze

Theuse of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical landsdates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier towork with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer andanvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applicationsas copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons thatwere made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the secondmillennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham tothe judges, and its use continued as the raw materials wereavailable. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technologyof ironworking.

Thefirst biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which weare told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next,bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert.Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and basesfor the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19).The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze(27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin forwashing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed iton top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundanceof venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles ofbronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons ofbronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amountof bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), andthere was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32,35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss somethingthat was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18;Ezek. 40:3).

Ironand Steel

Ironoriginally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked asa precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found,iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increasedin popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time ofthe united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoeniciantraders were very active during this time, and they would havebrought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenthcentury BC the technology to work iron into steel through thequenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A largenumber of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, andno deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits havebeen found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whetherthe ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.

Oncethe technology to turn iron into steel became known, both becamehighly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper hadbecome more difficult to obtain due to a change in internationaltrading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed inPalestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventhcenturyBC.

Oneof the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by theCanaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have beenan early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’srod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7).Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days,David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in buildingthe temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used thesematerials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14).Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context oftrading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor fordiscussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes thestrength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev.2:27; 19:15).

Tin

Tinwas initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin wasnot used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and eventhen seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world arecurrently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish insouthern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoeniciantraders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it iscurrently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and usedduring biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan.Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of awrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons ofcopper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possiblyoriginated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound forthe Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times inScripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek.22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead

Leadwas used early in human history, but its applications were few. Itwould have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extractedas a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, mostnotably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture,either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times itis referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writingimplement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a womansitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Goldand Silver

Soughtafter for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked byhumans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metalswithin the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economicand ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form ofpayment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Goldobjects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly becausemost gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried offas tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological recordmore frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was foundat Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has beendated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdomof Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likelyused as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been mintedinto coins.

Goldin the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. TheBible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well asOphir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places isunknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals,and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of theClassical period were also known for their vast silver-miningoperations.

Silverand gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to theiruses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, theIsraelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold andsilver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernaclewas highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple builtby Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy thatsilver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27).Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture arethose paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

PreciousStones

Stonesof various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makesfew references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were usedmainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highlyprized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohswere fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it onthe Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have beenfound with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaaniteslaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of fortsalong the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably toprotect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones werealso found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able tobring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn bythe Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in thefoundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel usesnine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the kingof Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

TheBible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote ahoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

The word “apocrypha” is derived from a Greek wordmeaning “secret” or “hidden” and refers totexts regarded by some Jews and Christians as religiously valuablebut not meeting the criteria of canonicity. The more specific title“New Testament Apocrypha” distinguishes certain writingsfrom those commonly referred to as “the Apocrypha,” acollection of works written by Jews (with later Christian editing inplaces) between approx. 200 BC and AD 90, recognized as Scripture byRoman Catholic and Orthodox Churches but generally rejected byProtestants (see Apocrypha, Old Testament). What is loosely calledNew Testament Apocrypha is no single collection but actually a vast,amorphous corpus that can only be selectively discussed here. (TheApostolic Fathers, texts written mainly in the late first century andsecond century, and later church fathers are not considered here aspart of this grouping.) In broadest terms, these texts concernthemselves with Jesus Christ and his apostles, but often from aperspective that differs from the NT portraits. Nevertheless, many ofthe works appear to be either dependent upon or influenced by thegenres and characters of the NT, principally gospels, letters,apostolic acts, and apocalypse.

Thesewritings remain outside of the Christian canon for the followingreasons. First, the texts, at least in their final form, werepublished in the postapostolic period (the second century), whereasall of the NT writings were believed to have been written by anapostle (Matthew, John, Paul, Peter) or an apostolic associate (Mark,Luke). Some apocryphal writings (e.g., Gospel of Thomas) may simplyadapt earlier, apostolic tradition. Second, the point of view inthese writings does not represent a broad constituency in the earlychurch. Some appear to reflect the ideology of various gnosticgroups, which became prominent in the second century throughout theMediterranean, with centers in Antioch in Syria and Alexandria inEgypt. Although a diverse phenomenon, gnosticism generally embracedsecret knowledge as a vehicle for salvation from the material world,a development of extreme Platonism. Therefore, Jesus saves through anesoteric teaching, not his atoning death. The diminution of the crossled to the orthodox rejection of this perspective. In attempting torefute gnostics, Irenaeus of Lyons (died c. AD 195) appropriates whathe calls the “rule of faith” (regula fidei), which waspassed on by the apostles and everywhere accepted by the churches(Haer. 1.8.1; 1.9.4). Other apocryphal texts appear to represent aconservative Jewish-Christian perspective. The church graduallyshifted from being primarily a Jewish religious group that acceptednon-Jews to what Christians themselves described as a “thirdrace” in distinction from Jews and pagans. Relationshipsbetween Jews and Christians continued to sour because of mutualpersecution, competition, and misunderstanding. By the secondcentury, some Christian writers claimed God had rejected Israel(e.g., the author of Epistle of Barnabas). Many texts emphasizecelibacy, fasting, and other rigorously ascetic practices, which gobeyond the moderate guidelines in the NT. These factors contributedto the marginalization of Jewish believers in Jesus, making theirwritings suspect. Like the gnostic texts, the primary concern was adiminished Christology. Consequently, many of these writings were notcopied (and therefore preserved) by Christian copyists and thuseventually were lost. However, many texts were discovered at NagHammadi in Egypt in 1945. Scraps of papyri have also been recoveredfrom various sites in the dry sands of the desert. But many of theapocryphal writings survive only in fragments (e.g., Acts of Paul ).

TheNew Testament Apocrypha provide a window into the various waysChristians attempted to live out their faith in Jesus Christ, therise of ascetic monasticism, and why orthodox Christianity ultimatelyparted ways with both rabbinic Judaism and gnosticism. The diversityof the church’s past may provide context and insight for thechallenges of the present.

Gospels

Theapocryphal Gospels often amplify or add to material that is morelimited in the canonical Gospels. This is especially the case withJesus’ youth and the passion narrative. The Infancy Gospel ofThomas depicts, among other things, the child Jesus making sparrowsout of clay and then bringing them to life. The Gospel of Peter,which dates probably from the middle of the second century and islikely dependent on Mark’s Gospel, begins with Jesus’trial and breaks off in what is presumably a resurrection appearanceto a group of disciples. According to some scholars, the Gospel ofPeter is cited by Origen (c. AD 185–255) as evidence thatJesus’ purported brothers were Joseph’s from an earliermarriage, thereby protecting the perpetual virginity of Mary (Comm.ser. Matt. 10.17). This gospel reflects a strong anti-Jewish bias.The Protevangelium of James relates the miraculous birth of Jesus’mother, Mary.

Otherapocryphal Gospels single out a particular apostle who alone is givenspecial revelation. A complete version of the Gospel of Thomas wasdiscovered among the Nag Hammadi writings and is perhaps the earliestapocryphal gospel. The emphasis on Thomas suggests a Syrianprovenance. Containing little narrative, the text is primarily acollection of Jesus’ sayings (loosely grouped according totheme), some of which are dependent on the Gospel of Luke (e.g., 47,104). James, the brother of the Lord, is given prominence (12), butthere are also polemics against traditional Jewish piety: prayer,fasting, alms, and circumcision (6, 14, 53, 104). The Gospel ofJudas, which is dated to around the middle of the second century andsurvives in one or two copies, consists primarily of dialoguesbetween Judas Iscariot and Jesus during his passion. Judas ispresented as the only disciple to recognize Jesus’ true originand identity. In response, Jesus praises him: “You will exceedall of [the other apostles]. For you will sacrifice the man thatclothes me” (43). This text reflects a gnostic point of view(probably Sethian, representing a group that venerated the biblicalfigure of Seth and viewed Jesus as his reincarnation, as in theApocryphon of John, the Gospel of the Egyptians, and the Apocalypseof Paul  ). Whereas Peter makes a confession of faith inthe canonical Gospels, Judas says, “I know who you are andwhere you have come from. You are from the immortal realm of Barbelo”(35). (In gnostic mythology, Barbelo [Coptic for “GreatEmission”] is the divine Mother of all, who is often describedas the “Forethought of the Father,” the “InfiniteOne.”) The Gospel of Judas has Jesus reject the God of Israel(21) and attack the Christian church and its leadership (26–27).

Thechurch fathers often mention Jewish gospels (Gospel of the Hebrews,Gospel of the Nazarenes, Gospel of the Ebionites), including a Hebrewversion of Matthew (Irenaeus, Haer. 3.1.1; Eusebius, Hist. eccl.6.25.4). Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 150–215) cites a sayingof Jesus from the Gospel of the Hebrews: “He that marvels shallreign, and he that has reigned shall rest” (Strom. 2.9.45;5.14.96). Epiphanius (c. AD 310/320–403) preserves part of theGospel of the Ebionites: “It came to pass that John wasbaptizing, and Pharisees and all Jerusalem went out to him and werebaptized. And John had a garment of camel’s hair and a leathergirdle about his waist, and his food, it is said, was wild honey, thetaste of which was that of manna, as a cake dipped in oil”(Pan. 30.13.4–5). The Ebionites (the “poor”) were aJewish-Christian group. The wording may reflect a vegetarianperspective, a popular form of asceticism, which annoyed Epiphanius,who claimed that the Ebionites “were resolved to make the wordof truth into a lie and to put a cake in the place of locusts.”However, the text only claims that the wild honey had the taste ofmanna, “as a cake dipped in oil.” The discovery of papyriin Egypt has also provided agrapha (unwritten sayings) of Jesus.Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840 depicts a debate between Jesus and aPharisaic chief priest over viewing the holy utensils in the templein an impure state.

ApostolicActs

Thissubgenre typically involves a narrative of an apostle’smissionary activity (e.g., Andrew, Peter, John, Paul, Philip) fromthe time of Jesus’ resurrection to his own martyrdom (or, inthe case of John, simply his death). Books of acts also feature otherimportant individuals in the early history of the church, such asBarnabas and even Pilate. Some function to explain how the Christianfaith reached a community. The Acts of Thomas, which originatesprobably in Syrian Christianity, depicts his missionary activity inIndia. They are partly dependent on Luke’s book of Acts, butthey reflect a greater interest in biographical detail. The Acts ofPaul and Thecla provides a physical description of the apostle: “aman of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a goodstate of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, fullof friendliness.” Contrary to popular assumption and theimpression that one gets from Paul’s letters (2 Cor.10:10), the depiction in its cultural context is flattering. Theclais presented as a young, engaged woman from a prominent family inIconium. She believes Paul’s gospel, which emphasizes sexualabstinence (see 1 Cor. 7:1–16). She breaks off herengagement, and the apostle permits her to become a teacher. Thedetails may be a reaction against developments in the early church,which struggled over sexuality and women’s roles in leadership.In the Acts of Peter, Luke’s presentation of a conflict betweenSimon Magus and Simon Peter is greatly expanded; this versiondescribes, among other things, Simon Magus levitating over Rome, onlyto be grounded by the prayers of Peter (4, 6, 9, 11–18, 23,31).

Letters

Theletter genre was not especially popular for those writing Christianapocryphal literature. In one letter, Abgar, king of Edessa, writesJesus, inviting him to visit his city. Jesus responds with acourteous letter relating that he must fulfill his mission but,following his ascension, will send a disciple (see Eusebius, Hist.eccl. 1.13). There are also fourteen letters between Paul and theStoic philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65). No one treats theseletters as authentic, but they do provide insight into earlyChristian curiosities. Paul mentions a letter to the Laodiceans,which has not survived (Col. 4:16), so someone in the fourth centuryor earlier patched together phrases mainly from Philippians andGalatians to provide such a letter. The work known as3 Corinthians, which contains a letter from the Corinthianchurch and Paul’s reply, probably serves the same purpose.

Apocalypses

Anapocalypse features a seer who receives revelation from asupernatural revealer. Apocalypses are attributed to, among others,Paul, Peter, Thomas, Stephen, and James. They typically featurerevelations made by Jesus to his disciples in the period between hisresurrection and ascension. The book of Revelation appears to havehad little influence on these works. Many of them are gnostic. Butthe Apocalypse of Peter, which most likely originated in PalestinianJewish Christianity during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 132–135),was highly valued, particularly for its depiction of hell, in whichtwenty-one sinners suffer in ways appropriate to their sin.

Apocrypha,Old Testament–The Greek word apokrypha means “hidden”or “concealed,” and later it came to refer to religiousbooks considered to be of inferior quality to the OT and the NT.During the third century, several church fathers (e.g., Origen [d.253], Irenaeus [d. c. 200], Tertullian [d. 220]) used this term todistinguish these works from canonical works. Currently, the phrase“Old Testament Apocrypha” refers to Jewish literary workswritten between approximately 200 BC and AD 90 that were included inthe earliest Greek codices of the LXX.

TheApocrypha and the Development of the Canon

Bythe first century AD, many Jews believed that prophecy continued onlyuntil about the time of Ezra, around the end of the fifth century BC,and thus several of the apocryphal works were associated with famousbiblical characters such as Jeremiah, Baruch, or Solomon, most likelyin order to give them credibility. In Matt. 23:34–35; Luke11:49–51 Jesus appears to limit the OT canon to the books knownto be in the Jewish canon. Both passages record Jesus stating thatthe Jewish nation will be held responsible for the blood of theprophets from “the blood of Abel” (see Gen. 4:8–10),the first recorded murder, “to the blood of Zechariah”(see 2 Chron. 24:20–22), the last recorded murder. Theimplication is that biblical history spans from Genesis to Chronicles(most likely the last book in the order of the Hebrew Bible at thetime of Jesus), which is equivalent to saying from Genesis to Malachiin the English Bible.

Basedupon this evidence, it is doubtful that the early Jews everconsidered the apocryphal works part of their canon. In reality, theearly Greek codices were Christian collections from the fourth tofifth centuries AD. Apparently, by that time there were significantquestions concerning which books made up the OT canon. By the end ofthe first century AD, Christians had been dispersed all over theRoman Empire, so it is more than likely that few Christians wouldhave had contact with Jews or exposure to their scriptural canon. Itis reasonable to assume that during this period of uncertainty, theapocryphal books were thought by some to be part of the Jewish OTcanon. A major turning point occurred in the fourth century AD whenJerome (c. 345–420) was asked to write a standardizedtranslation of the Latin Bible. Jerome used original Greek and Hebrewtexts to correct his Latin translation. He did not believe that theapocryphal books were part of the OT since they were not included inthe Hebrew manuscripts. Nevertheless, some argue that he was coercedinto adding them to the Latin Vulgate by Augustine of Hippo(354–430), who believed that at least part of the apocryphalbooks were to be included in the OT canon. The Latin Vulgate becamethe standard translation of the Roman Catholic Church for well over athousand years, and thus the Old Testament Apocrypha were graduallyaccepted in the church. Another major turning point occurred duringthe Protestant Reformation when Luther’s views were argued atthe Council of Trent (convened three times between 1545 and 1563)that the Apocrypha were not part of the OT canon. The Roman CatholicChurch had used 2 Macc. 12:43–45 to substantiate itsdoctrines of purgatory and praying for the dead; likewise Tobit andother apocryphal works were used to substantiate works ofrighteousness (i.e, not faith alone for salvation). On April 8, 1546,at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church decreed that theApocrypha were indeed part of the Christian canon and pronouncedanathema upon those who disagreed.

Sincethe time of Luther, Protestants have rejected the canonicity of theApocrypha. However, the Roman Catholic Church has argued that fifteenapocryphal works are part of their authoritative Scriptures. TheGreek Orthodox Church includes two additional works (3 Maccabees;Psalm 151) in its authoritative canon.

Argumentsagainst including Apocryphal Books in the Canon

Thereare significant arguments for not including these books in thechurch’s authoritative canon.

1. TheNT never cites any apocryphal books as inspired; Jesus’ usageof Scripture suggests that only the books in the Hebrew Bible wereauthoritative (Matt. 23:34–35; Luke 11:50–51).

2. Noneof the apocryphal books claims to be the word of the Lord, as do manyOT books (Num. 35:1, 9; Josh. 1:1; Isa. 1:10, 18, 24; Jer. 1:2; Ezek.1:3; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1).

3. TheOT canon is confirmed by many sources: 2 Esd. 14:45 (twenty-fourbooks); Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.37–42 (twenty-two books);Melito (all OT books except perhaps Esther); the Jerusalem List (allthirty-nine books); Origen (twenty-two books). All of these sourceslist the same thirty-nine OT books except that they are groupeddifferently (with the exception of Melito, who may omit Esther).

4. Thereis little evidence to suggest that there were two different OTcanons, one that developed in Palestine and one in Egypt. In fact,Philo, a Jew from Alexandria, never quotes from an apocryphal book asauthoritative.

5. Thereare significant historical inaccu­racies in the Apocrypha. Forexample, the events in the book of Tobit (1:3–5) arechronologically incompatible: Tobit is said to live in Nineveh about722 BC and yet also to have seen the division of the united kingdomin about 931 BC.

6. Thereare theological inconsistencies. For example, 2 Macc. 12:43–45espouses praying for the dead, but canonical books maintain thatdecisions about one’s eternal destiny can be made only beforedeath (Heb. 9:27). Eleven out of fifteen apocryphal books containsome type of inaccuracies. Those that do not either are very short(i.e., Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men; Prayer ofManasseh) or their content makes it difficult to determine if theycontain errors (i.e., Wisdom of Solomon; Susanna).

7. Manyearly church fathers spoke against the canonicity of much or all ofthe Apocrypha (Melito, Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Athanasius,Jerome); no major church father accepted all of the apocryphal booksuntil Augustine. The apocryphal books have never been universallyaccepted by the church.

8. Theearliest list of OT canon by Melito (c. AD 170) does not includethem.

9. Duringthe Council of Trent, Martin Luther’s views against thecanonicity of the Apocrypha were discussed, citing the NT, earlychurch fathers, and Jewish teachers in support. The Roman CatholicChurch responded by canonizing the Apocrypha.

TheBooks of the Old Testament Apocrypha

Eventhough the apocryphal books should not be considered part of theauthoritative canon, they are useful for understanding Jewish thoughtand interests in the intertestamental period and the development ofcertain concepts during this period (e.g., the importance of theTorah, the apocalyptic view of history, the kingdom of God).

Traditionally,the Apocrypha consisted of fifteen books that were included in RomanCatholic Bibles and were usually identified as deuterocanonical(i.e., second canon) works. However, more recently this number hasbeen reduced to thirteen since 4 Ezra (sometimes called 2 Esdrasor Apocalypse of Ezra) and the Prayer of Manasseh were never found inthe oldest Greek codices of the LXX: Vaticanus (c. AD 350),Sinaiticus (c. AD 400), and Alexandrinus (c. AD 450). These two worksare now correctly considered pseudepigraphal books (i.e., falsewritings that were never thought to be part of the biblical canon).

Thelist below follows the Roman Catholic canon. In addition to thesetexts, several other writings are included in the Greek Orthodox,Armenian, Georgian, Syriac, and Ethiopian canons: 3 Maccabees,4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, Psalms 152–55, 1 Enoch, Jubilees,2 Baruch (Letter of Baruch), 3 Baruch (Apocalypse ofBaruch), 4 Baruch (Paralipomena of Jeremiah), and 1–3Megabyan (Ethiopic Maccabees).

Booksincluded in the Old Testament Apocrypha.Thefollowing thirteen books are included in the Old Testament Apocrypha.

• Wisdomof Solomon (latter part of the first century BC): This work containsJewish wisdom traditions and describes the benefits of wisdom and thejoys that accompany righteous living, as well as punishments for thewicked.

• Sirach(or Ecclesiasticus; c. 180 BC): This book is very similar to thebiblical book of Proverbs, also containing Jewish wisdom traditions.It includes moral and ethical maxims, proverbs, songs of praise,theological and philosophical reflections on life, and customs of theday.

• Tobit(c. 180 BC): A romantic story teaching that God comes to the aid ofthose who remain faithful to his laws. Tobit, a righteous Israeliteliving in Nineveh, is an example to the rest of the captives even inthe midst of great adversities. Tobit becomes blind and prays to Godto restore his sight. At the same time in Media, Sarah, Tobit’sniece, who had lost seven bridegrooms in succession, prays to God fordeliverance from the demon Asmodeus. God sends the angel Raphael todeliver them both.

• Judith(c. 150 BC): Nebuchadnezzar sends Holofernes to punish the peoplewest of Babylon for their insubordination. The author exhorts theJews to remain obedient to the law amid foreign occupation by theBabylonians. The people of Judea pray to God for help; in answer,Judith beguiles Holofernes, gets him thoroughly drunk, and thendecapitates him.

• 1 Esdras(or 3 Ezra; c. second to first century BC): This book is aretelling of parts of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. It beginsabruptly describing the reinstitution of the Passover by King Josiahin Jerusalem about 622/621 BC and continues to Ezra’s reformsabout 458 BC. The majority of the book emphasizes Ezra’sreforms.

• 1 Maccabees(c. latter part of the second century BC): This book describes Judeanhistory and especially the military campaigns of the Maccabees fromthe accession of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) in about 175 BC to thereign of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC). This work is a veryaccurate history and is the primary source of recorded events duringthis period.

• 2 Maccabees(c. end of second century to beginning of first century BC): Thisbook is much more theologically oriented than 1 Maccabees inrecording events of Jewish history from the time of the high priestOnias III and the Syrian king Seleucus IV (c. 180 BC) tothe defeat of Nicanor’s army (c. 161 BC). It appears to adoptan anti-Hasmonean viewpoint by highlighting concepts such as theresurrection of the body and the efficacious nature of martyrdom.

• Baruch(c. second to first century BC): This claims to be a letter fromBaruch to those living in Jerusalem. It begins with a confirmationthat Jerusalem was destroyed because of Israel’s sinfulness andwas to be read on a feast day as a confession of their sin (1:14).

• Epistleof Jeremiah (third to first century BC): The date of this work is nowconfirmed by a first-century BC Greek manuscript from Cave 7 ofQumran. The text contains 72 or 73 verses and is most likelyinfluenced by Jer. 10:1–16. This letter, supposedly fromJeremiah to Jewish captives soon to be taken to Babylon, describesthe folly of worshiping idols.

• Additionsto Esther (c. second to first century BC): These six additions (e.g.,Mordecai’s dream and its interpretation, prayers of Mordecaiand Esther) to the Greek text of Esther apparently were introduced tohighlight the religious aspect of the story that the author felt waslacking.

• Susanna(c. second to first century BC): This work and the next two wereadded to the book of Daniel sometime during the first century BC.Susanna is tried and found guilty because of the lies that two eldersof Israel told about her after she refused their sexual advances.Daniel, however, inspired by God, cross-examines the two men, provesthat they have lied, and exonerates Susanna.

• Beland the Dragon (c. second to first century BC): This work containstwo stories demonstrating the wisdom of Daniel. In the first, heoutwits the priests of Bel who go each night through a secretentrance to eat the offerings left for Bel. Daniel reveals theirdeception and proves their great statue of Bel, the patron deity ofBabylon, to be a worthless idol. In the second story, Daniel isthrown into the lions’ den for killing a dragon that theBabylonians believed to be a god. However, the angel of the Lordprotects Daniel and brings Habakkuk from Judea with food for him. Onthe seventh day, Daniel is removed from the lions’ den and hisenemies are thrown in.

• Prayerof Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men (c. second to firstcentury BC): Before being thrown into the fiery furnace (cf. Dan.3:23), Abednego (“Azariah” in Hebrew) prays, asking Godto bring glory to his name through this ordeal. Then follows the songof the three young men (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), who singpraise and glory to God.

Booksno longer in the Old Testament Apocrypha. Thefollowing two books are no longer included in the Old TestamentApocrypha.

• 2 Esdras(or 4 Ezra, Apocalypse of Ezra; c. first century AD): Anapocalyptic book dealing with the problem of evil in the world, ormore specifically why an all-powerful, loving God allows such greatevils to befall humankind. The reason why turns out to be humansinfulness.

• Prayerof Manasseh (c. second to first century BC): According to 2 Chron.33:10–13, Manasseh prayed to God while in captivity and askedfor forgiveness for his many sins. God responds by forgiving him andallowing him to return to Israel. This work purports to record thisamazing prayer.

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

Divine pronouncements given to humankind that are eitherunsolicited (Isa. 7:3–9; Hag. 1:2–11; Zech. 12:1) or aresponse to an inquiry (2Kings 8:8). It was common practicethroughout the ancient Near East to seek pronouncements from deitiesand to identify holy sites where sacred individuals could query thedeities (e.g., the shrine of Apollo at Delphi). How much time elapsedbetween the transmission of an oracle and its inscription isuncertain. Inscriptions from the surrounding Near Eastern milieuattest that messages received from a deity often were transcribedimmediately upon reception, with the prophet’s name attached.

Receptionand Delivery of Oracles

TheHebrew word massa’ (derived from nasa’, “to lift,take, carry”), variously translated “oracle” (Isa.17:1; 19:1; 21:1; 30:6), “burden” (Isa. 17:1 JPS, KJV),or “prophecy” (Prov. 30:1; 31:1 KJV), is used in thisfigurative sense primarily in prophetic speech (Prov. 30:1; 31:1 arethe exceptions) to refer to threatening pronouncements against Israel(Hab. 1:1; Zech. 12:1; Mal. 1:1), its neighbors (Isa. 13:1; 14:28;15:1; Nah. 1:1), or an individual (2Kings 9:25; 2Chron.24:27). Although the word itself is used infrequently, the propheticactivity of delivering divine pronouncements was prevalent throughoutIsrael’s history, rising in prominence during the monarchy andceasing at the beginning of the intertestamental period.

Priests,judges (Deut. 17:9), and prophets (1Sam. 9:9) could be therecipients and deliverers of divine oracles, although as the dutiesof these offices became more differentiated over time, delivery oforacles became more the province of the prophet (2Kings22:11–14; Jer. 21:2). A few oracles found in the OT areattributed to non-Israelites (Balaam [Num. 22–24]; Agur [Prov.30:1]; King Lemuel [Prov. 31:1]). The Israelites were commanded toseek Yahweh (Isa. 55:6; Hos. 10:12), and they (Isa. 9:13) and theirleaders (Jer. 10:21) were condemned both for failure to do so and fortheir dismissive response to a prophetic oracle once it had beendelivered, whether solicited (Ezek. 33:30–32) or not (Zech.7:12).

Prophetswere often sought to inquire about obtaining an oracle (1Sam.9:9; 2Kings 3:11; 22:13) during times of crisis or need. Suchoracles were for the benefit of either an individual (Exod. 18:15;2Kings 8:8) or the nation (1Kings 22:5; 2Kings3:11; 2Chron. 18:6) and were sought by commoners (Gen. 25:22;Exod. 18:15; Ezek. 33:30), elders (Ezek. 14:1–3; 20:1; see also8:1), royalty (1Kings 14:5; 22:5–8; 2Kings 22:18;2Chron. 26:5), army officials (Jer. 42:1–3), andforeigners (2Kings 8:7; Isa. 14:32). Prophetic response tooracular inquiry was not automatic. Deliverance of an oracle after aninquiry could be immediate (Jer. 37:17), delayed for an extendedperiod of time (Jer. 42:7 [ten days]), or the prophet could refuse todeliver an oracle (Jer. 23:33; Ezek. 14:1). A previous oracle couldbe superseded (Isa. 38 [compare v.1 with vv. 4–6]).Various commodities could be used for payment, including silver(1Sam. 9:7–8), food (1Kings 14:3), and foreigngoods (2Kings 8:7–9).

Oraclescould be pronounced publicly in various places, including the palace(2Kings 20:4–5), the temple (Jer. 7:2; 26:2), the citygates (1Kings 22:10; 2Chron. 18:9), the roadside (1Kings20:38–43), or privately to individuals, including royalty (Jer.37:17), officials (Isa. 22:15), and foreigners (Jer. 39:15–17).There are several mentions in Scripture of oracles that are not partof the canonical record (e.g., 2Chron. 24:27).

Oracularpronouncements could be brief (1Kings 17:1) or lengthy (thebooks of Nahum and Malachi), and they consisted of a variety ofgenres, including satire (Isa. 44:9–20), parable (2Sam.12:1–14), and lament (Jer. 9:20; Ezek. 19; Amos 5:1), toproduce the desired rhetorical effect. The prophetic introductory orconcluding oracular formulas “thus says the Lord” and“declares the Lord” echo the messenger terminology of thebroader culture, in which a similar introductory “thus saysX”was used by messengers delivering public proclamations on behalf ofthe one who commissioned them (2Chron. 36:23). In this way, theprophet presented an oracle as God’s message to the people, nothis own.

NominalIsrael was condemned for seeking pronouncements from false gods(2Kings 1:3–4, 6, 16; 2Chron. 25:15; Hos. 4:12),necromancy (Isa. 8:19), and failure to inquire of the true God ofIsrael (Zeph. 1:6). False prophets could also claim to have receivedcommunication from God (Deut. 13:1–11; 18:20; Ezek. 13), butthey were indicted for delivering their own message without divinesanction (Jer. 23:34–39; 28; Lam. 2:14; Ezek. 13), turning thepeople away from the true God to worship false gods (Deut. 13:1–11)and delivering oracular pronouncements in order to enjoy personalpleasure (Mic. 2:11) and gain (Jer. 6:13–15; 8:10–12).

OftenScripture simply notes that a prophet received a “word of theLord” (Jer. 1:2; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1; cf. Isa. 14:28; Hab. 1:1)without explicitly stating the means by which the divinepronouncement was received. The prophetic witness mentions bothseeing (Isa. 1:1; 13:1; Amos 8:1; Hab. 1:1) and hearing (Ezek.1:24–25, 28) divine communication, but what actually happenedto the prophet is not easily determined. The references to the Spiritcoming upon an individual (Num. 11:25; 24:2; 1Sam. 10:6, 10;Ezek. 8:1; 11:5; 37:1) point to some sort of divine intervention thatseized the prophet’s consciousness in such a way as to preparethe prophet for a revelation from God.

Prophetswere known to have ecstatic or visionary experiences that marked themas operating under divine influence. In addition, several of theprophets (Isa. 20; Jer. 13:1–11; Ezek. 5:1–4) acted outdemonstrations (sign-acts) as part of their oracular ministry. Theseecstatic experiences and peculiar actions offended many of theircontemporaries (2Kings 9:11; Jer. 29:26; Hos. 9:7). Thesephenomena were concentrated around the two great crises faced byIsrael: the demise of the northern kingdom in 722 BC and of thesouthern kingdom in 586 BC. Having been given warning that nationaljudgment was imminent, these prophets were led to augment theirpreaching with dramatizations in order to convey more persuasively tothe audience the urgency of heeding their message (Ezek. 12:8–11).

Typesof Oracles

Formcritics have identified three main types of prophetic oracles:oracles of salvation, judgment, and repentance. The first is furtherdivided into subcategories: individual salvation oracles (1Kings17:8–16) and community salvation oracles (1Sam. 7:3–15).The prophets, however, were not tightly bound to the traditionalforms, and they demonstrated great creativity in modifying the formsto fit their personal style and the situation before them.

Thesevarious types of oracles were not arbitrary pronouncements; they werefounded on Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh (Jer.34:18). The prophets served as covenant prosecutors, and theiroracles were part of the prosecution’s case on behalf of Yahwehagainst the people. Behavior, whether an individual’s or thenation’s, was evaluated in light of the demands of thecovenant. So too, Yahweh’s response—judgment orsalvation—was cast in terms of his faithfulness to thecovenant(s) that he made with Israel.

Salvationoracles announced Yahweh’s glorious deliverance andrestoration, mostly in response to the catastrophe of 586 BC (Ezek.11:16–21; 36:24–38; 37:15–28; Amos 9:11–15;Zeph. 3:14–20), and they could include in thesalvificpronouncement the destruction of the enemy (Zeph. 3:19). They oftenopen with the formulaic “in that day” (Amos 9:11; Mic.4:6), focusing Israel’s attention on a future time when all itsenemies would be subdued and covenantal blessings would beestablished and enjoyed by the redeemed community.

Judgmentoracles typically were introduced with an interjection, oftentranslated into English as “woe,” followed by a formaladdress and accusation accompanied by an announcement of thepunishment to be inflicted (Isa. 1:4; 5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22; Jer.22:13; Ezek. 34:2). These oracles could take the form of a lawsuit.In Isa. 1:2 “heaven and earth” are summoned as witnesses,harking back to Deut. 30:19; 31:28; 32:1, where these elements ofnature were invoked by Moses to be witnesses of God’s covenantwith Israel. Some oracles state explicitly that a case has beenbrought against the people (Isa. 3:13; Jer. 2:9; Hos. 4:1; 12:2; Mic.6:1–2).

Repentanceoracles specifically summon the addressee to repentance and arecommitment to the covenant in order to avoid destruction (Isa.31:6; Jer. 4:1; Hos. 12:6).

Meansof Oracles

Variousobjects were sanctioned for use in discerning God’s will.Scripture is silent on many of the details regarding the manipulationof these objects, but the validity of their use for discerning thedivine will is not questioned. The mysterious Urim and Thummim, twostonelike objects kept in the high priest’s breastpiece, appearto have operated to give a “yes or no” response (Exod.28:30; Lev. 8:8; Deut. 33:8; 1Sam. 14:41), though sometimesthere is no response at all (1Sam. 28:6). The ephod, some sortof two-piece linen apron or loin cloth worn by priests under thebreastpiece (Exod. 28:4, 6; 1Sam. 23:9–12; 1Sam.30:7–8; but note that Samuel was wearing one as he assisted thehigh priest Eli [1Sam. 2:18], and David, as he led theprocession returning the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem [2Sam.6:14]), was also pressed into service for discerning God’swill. Another method, the casting of lots, is shrouded in mystery.This method was used to determine the scapegoat on the Day ofAtonement (Lev. 16:8–10), the guilty party in the loss at Ai(Josh. 7:14), land allotment in Canaan (Josh. 14–19; 21),priestly assignments in the temple (1Chron. 24:5; 25:8; 26:13),residency in Jerusalem in the postexilic community (Neh. 11:1), theday to massacre the Jews in Persia as plotted by Haman (Esther 3:7;9:24), and dividing the Messiah’s clothing (Ps. 22:18; cf. John19:24).

Oraclesagainst the Foreign Nations

Aspecial group of oracles are those addressed to Israel’shistoric enemies, commonly referred to as “oracles against the[foreign] nations.” Blocks of these oracles are found in Amos1–2; Isa. 13–23; Jer. 46–51; Ezek. 25–32 andthe entire books of Nahum and Obadiah. These oracles were addressedto a specific foreign nation (the putative audience) but were heardby Israel. During a time when most people’s conception of deitywas tied to a specific land, these oracles maintained that Yahweh wassovereign over the whole earth, and that his purposes included allhumankind. All the nations do his bidding. These oracles were to beunderstood against the backdrop of Israel’s infidelity toYahweh and its futile reliance on the support of foreign nations. Theoracles demonstrated that Yahweh would bring down all that washaughty and would order events so that he alone would be high andexalted in the day of his coming. Those nations that cursed Israelwould themselves be cursed (Gen. 12:1–3; 27:29).

NewTestament Usage

Inthe NT, “oracle” (Gk. logion) occurs four times, alwaysin the plural (logia [NIV: “words”]). It refers to theMosaic law (Acts 7:38) and unspecified portions of revelation (Rom.3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1Pet. 4:11).

An intimate, exclusive, lifelong covenant relationshipbetween a man and a woman wherein a new family is established.

Theologyof Marriage

Thebiblical basis for marriage is recorded in Gen. 2:18–24, whichestablishes a number of important points relating to marriage.

First,in Gen. 2:18 God highlights the first expressed inadequacy withincreation: the man is alone. The solution to the man’s solitudeis found not among the animals (a fact demonstrated by the carefulsearch expressed by having the man name each of them) but in acreature specifically created to address the problem of his solitude:woman. She is created from his “rib” (a bettertranslation is “side”), so that she is more like him thanany of the animals. In spite of this, she is not a clone, but rathera complement to him. She is described as a “helper suitable forhim,” which highlights her fulfillment of the inadequacy Godhad previously identified.

Second,the role of the wife is not restricted to providing a means by whichto fulfill the command to fill the earth (through bearing children),for the problem identified in Gen. 2:18 cannot be reduced to thisalone. The OT establishes that human beings are relational andsocial, and that isolation is not good, quite aside fromconsiderations relating to childbearing. Indeed, when marriage isemployed as a metaphor for the relationship between God and hispeople (see below), it can be conceptualized quite apart from thenotion of procreation, suggesting that the latter should not beconsidered the primary purpose of marriage.

Third,Gen. 2:23 describes the relationship between the man and the woman interms strongly reminiscent of the traditional kinship formula usedwith reference to family members elsewhere in the OT: “bone ofmy bones, and flesh of my flesh” (cf., e.g., Gen. 29:14; Judg.9:2; 2Sam. 5:1; 19:13–14—similar to the modernEnglish expression “my flesh and blood”; see also Matt.19:5; Eph. 5:31). Although “be united” (othertranslations use “cleave”) and “one flesh”are frequently understood to refer to sexual union, this is not theonly, or even the primary, implication of the words. Genesis 2:24expresses the unification of the husband and the wife as theantithesis of the man’s leaving his father and mother. Theseterms (“leave” or “forsake,” “beunited” or “cleave”) are used elsewhere incovenantal contexts. “Cleave” is usually used of peoplein the sense of clinging to another out of affection and loyalty(Gen. 34:3; Ruth 1:14; 2Sam. 20:2; 1Kings 11:2). It isalso frequently used of Israel clinging to God (Deut. 10:20; 11:22;13:5; 30:20; Josh. 22:5; 23:8). “Forsake” is used ofbreaking covenants (Deut. 12:19; 14:27; 29:25; Jer. 1:16; 2:13, 17,19; 5:7; 16:11; 17:13; 19:4; 22:9). The verb also appears in thecontext of marital divorce in Prov. 2:16–17; Isa. 54:6; 62:4.

Theimplication of Gen. 2:24 is that the man was formerly “united”to his parents in a familial relationship, but when he marries, thecovenantal relationship with his parents is superseded by the newrelationship with his wife. Thus, in establishing the covenantalrelationship of marriage, the man and the woman form a new familyunit (they become “one flesh,” which parallels thekinship formula more fully expressed in Gen. 2:23). It is noteworthythat Gen. 2 thus defines a family as husband and wife; a family isformed before any children are born. Furthermore, the emphasis on thepriority of the relationship between husband and wife is particularlystriking, given both the importance of honoring one’s parents(Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16) and the distinctly patrilocal nature ofinheritance whereby sons would remain in the parents’ householdafter marriage and ultimately inherit a share of it, but daughterswould leave their parents’ house to be with their husbands.

Fourth,the description of the woman as the man’s “helper”cannot alone be used to demonstrate that the wife’s role waseither subordinate or superior to her husband’s. Although theterm is elsewhere often used as a description of God, it is also usedof subordinate helpers, and other contextual indications determinethe relative status of the helper aside from the use of the termitself.

Marriagein the Old Testament

TheBible presents few formal legal, liturgical, or cultic requirementsfor marriage (whereas there are specific laws dealing with divorce),although it does record some details of specific marriages from whichsome insight into marriage practices can be gleaned. Marriages oftenwere established through an arrangement between the parents of thehusband and those of the wife or between the husband and the parentsof his prospective wife (e.g., Gen. 24; 38:6), but there appears tobe some diversity, with examples of a man choosing his own wife(e.g., Judah in Gen. 38:2) or instances when the consent of the womanis sought (e.g., Gen. 24:8, 58). The requirement of a formalcertificate for divorce (Deut. 24:1, 3), together with examples ofmarriage contracts from the ancient Near East, are possible evidencethat marriage within Israel required certification, although there isno explicit confirmation of this in the OT or in Israel prior to therabbinic period. The marriages recorded in the OT often involvedfeasts of varying duration (Gen. 29:22; Judg. 14:12), the bride beingaccompanied to her home in a festive procession that included musicand singing (Ps. 78:63; Jer. 7:34; 16:9), and a blessing pronouncedover the bride that she might bear many children (Gen. 24:60; Ruth4:11). Deuteronomy 22:15 suggests that evidence of the bride’svirginity was retained by the wife’s family to guard againstfalse accusations by a husband seeking divorce.

Anotheraspect of marriage that appears to have been normative although notlegislated was the payment of a mohar, or “bride-price”(Gen. 34:12; Exod. 22:16; 1Sam. 18:25), as well as theprovision of a dowry (1Kings 9:16). The former was a paymentmade by the groom’s family to the bride’s family, thelatter an amount given by the father to his daughter. Typically, theformer appears to have exceeded the latter in value. The bride-price,at least in later times, functioned as insurance should the wife bedivorced.

TheBible does not issue any specific age constraints upon those beingmarried, indicating that the OT practice probably did not differsignificantly from that of other nations in the ancient Near East,where girls were considered ready for marriage once they had reachedpuberty or the age of twelve, and boys were generally slightly older.Constraints were placed on the eligibility of marriage partners, andgenerally marriages were endogamous: marriage partners were chosenfrom within the clan, tribe, or nation (e.g., Gen. 24:1–9;27:46–28:5; cf. Deut. 7:3, which prohibits marriage with some,but not all, foreigners, and Deut. 21:10–14, which permitsIsraelite warriors to take a wife from among female prisoners ofwar). While there were exceptions to this constraint (e.g., Mosesmarried a Midianite; Bathsheba was married to a Hittite; Boaz marriedRuth, a Moabite), in later times the restriction was given legalsanction under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 9:2, 12; Neh. 13:25; cf. Luke14:26; 18:29).

Inspite of the likelihood that many marriages in the OT and the ancientworld in general were arranged, the notion of romantic love as bothan ideal for marriage and a basis for choosing one’s spouseclearly was known and even regarded as desirable. This is reflectedin the approbation given romantic love in Song of Songs as well as instories such as that of Jacob (Gen. 29:18; see also Judg. 14:1–3;1Sam. 18:20).

Socially,marriage was of particular import for a woman in the ancient world,for her well-being usually depended on her place within the house ofeither her father or her husband. Because inheritance was passed downthe male line, women without connection to the house of a man were ina very tenuous state. Inheritance itself was also an important issuein the ancient world, and so great value was placed not just onmarriage but also on bearing children (particularly male [see alsoFirstborn]). Associated with these social functions of marriage inancient Israel is the fact that the OT permits and records a numberof instances of polygamy (always polygyny, never polyandry). Thisafforded social security to widows (see also Levirate Law, LevirateMarriage) and helped ensure the line of inheritance. It should benoted, however, that neither the welfare aspect of marriage nor therelated acceptance of polygamy is based on the biblical foundationfor marriage in Gen. 2, and consequently, polygamy does not reflectthe biblical ideal for marriage.

Thefundamental importance of the marriage relationship is alsohighlighted by the severity of the penalties for adultery (e.g.,Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18; 22:22–24; see also Adultery).

Marriagein the New Testament

Jesusreinforces the importance of marriage, emphasizing its divine originand lifelong nature (Matt. 19:6; Mark 10:9) as well as itsinviolability (Mark 10:2–12). In light of this, Jesus’assertion that at the resurrection there will be no marriage issurprising (Matt. 22:30). Although Jesus offers no explanation as towhy there will be no marriage following the resurrection, it isperhaps likely that the fundamental need identified by God in Gen.2:18 (the man was alone) will be solved in a different manner in theage to come: the intimate help and companionship ideally found inmarriage will be provided in perfected relationship with God and allothers.

Paulelaborates somewhat on marriage in the Christian community. Christianmarriage ought to be characterized by mutual submission in somerespects (1Cor. 7:4; Eph. 5:21) while reflecting someasymmetrical aspects of the relationship between Christ and thechurch in others (Eph. 5:22–33). Christians ought to marrywithin the church (2Cor. 6:14–18, although this passageis not restricted to marriage); however, those who are married tononbelievers are not to seek divorce, but are to remain faithful totheir spouses for the sake of both the spouse and their children(1Cor. 7:10–16).

TheNT makes reference to some of the marriage customs of the day,including sharing a feast (Matt. 22:2–12; Luke 12:36; John2:1–11), the expectation that guests be suitably attired (Matt.22:11–12), and a procession to the groom’s home (Matt.25:1–13; Luke 12:35–38).

SymbolicUse of Marriage

Marriageis used figuratively in both Testaments. The relationship between Godand his people is described with marriage language (Isa. 62:4–5;Jer. 2:2). By using such language, the prophets emphasize theintimacy and unity inherent in the relationship between God and hischosen people, as well as the devastating betrayal when the covenantis broken. The use of the marriage metaphor is thus extended to theuse of divorce language to describe God’s treatment ofunfaithful Israel (Jer. 3:8), and the notion of adultery andpromiscuity is equated with the worship of foreign gods (Ezek. 16;23). The prophet Hosea’s marriage is itself a graphicrepresentation of God’s relationship with his people and, inparticular, their faithlessness; however, it also holds out theanticipation of a new covenant, one wherein God declares, “Youwill call me ‘my husband’; you will no longer call me ‘mymaster’ ” (Hos. 2:16). The metaphorical use ofmarriage to image the relationship between God and his people alsoreflects the implicit belief in the asymmetrical nature of therelationship between husband and wife in the ancient world.

TheNT primarily identifies the church as the bride and Christ as thehusband when using marriage language figuratively (e.g., Eph.5:22–33). In so doing, the NT affirms Christ’s deity byexplicitly depicting him in the place occupied by God in the OT’suse of marriage symbolism. Jesus uses marriage in his parabolicteaching about the kingdom of God (Matt. 22:2–14; 25:1–12),as well as in reference to himself as bridegroom when explaining thebehavior of his disciples (Mark 2:19–20; Luke 5:34–35).Revelation depicts the return of Christ as the time of the marriagebetween the bride and the bridegroom (Rev. 19:7; 21:9).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

A divine communication in the form of visual imagery, usuallyaccompanied by words, and often using symbols that requireexplanation and spur reflection about God’s otherwiseimperceptible presence and activity. Presumably, the recipient “sees”the vision as an event of inward perception, often within a dreamduring sleep or in a divinely induced state of ecstasy (Gen. 15; Dan.7:1; 10:1–9; 2Cor. 12:1–4). Characteristically,visions entail conversation with God or an angelic representative,often following a question-and-answer format (Dan. 7:15–28;Zech. 1:8–15, 18–21). The visionary is actually in thescene as direct observer and active participant (Dan. 8:1–2).

Propheticvisions are meant to be retold. For example, imagery is accompaniedby the authentication of divine commissioning (Isa. 6; Ezek.1:1–3:15; Rev. 10), leading to announcement of judgment (Jer.1:4–19). This close conjunction of image and word (1Sam.3:21) is reinforced by statements about a prophet “seeing”God’s word (e.g., Mic. 1:1 ESV, NRSV, NASB) and about propheticbooks as collections of visions (2Chron. 32:32; Nah. 1:1).Vision reports join oracles and other forms of prophetic speech asessential features of these works. Visions contribute to thecommunity’s spiritual well-being (Prov. 29:18; Ezek. 7:26), butnot always (Lam. 2:14; Ezek. 13; Zech. 13:4; Col. 2:18).

Visionsdrive the narrative surrounding Jesus’ birth (Matt. 1:18–2:23;Luke 1:1–2:20). The baptism of Jesus includes a visionaryelement, the Holy Spirit’s anointing of Jesus for his ministry,accompanied by the Father’s word (Matt. 3:16–17; Mark1:10–11; Luke 3:22; John 1:32–33). Jesus’transfiguration is comparable (Matt. 17:1–9; Mark 9:2–10;Luke 9:28–36). Visions mark key transition points in thenarrative of Acts (e.g., chaps. 9–11). The book of Revelationopens with a vision of the Son of Man (1:9–20) and isstructured around three vision cycles of judgment interspersed withvisions of heaven meant to bolster the readers’ faithfulness.

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).